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FARM MACHINERY 

AND 

FARM MOTORS 



By 

J. BROWNLEE DAVIDSON, B.S., M.E. 

Junior Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers 

Professor of Agricultural Engineering 
Iowa State College 

LEON WILSON CHASE, B.S., M.E. 

Associate Member American Society of Mechanical Engineers 

Associate Professor of Farm Mechanics 
University of Nebraska 



ILLUSTRATED 



NEW YORK 

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

LONDON 

Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Co., Limited 
1908 



n 






LIBRARY of C0N63ESS. 
Two Oopies Hect!vsG 

FEB 4 1908 

potiyiiKiK ciiirv 

0US8 A Uc i*u. 

COPY a.' 



Copyright, 1908 
By ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 

All Rights Reserved 



[entered at stationers' hall, LONDON, ENGLAND] 



PREFACE 

Instruction pertaining to Farm Machinery and Farm 
Motors has b^en quite recently added to the agricultural 
course in the majority of the agricultural colleges in the 
United States. Although the need and importance of 
such a study was self-evident, it was a new field, one in 
which the knowledge pertaining to the subject had not 
been prepared and systematized for instructional pur- 
poses. The latest book on the subject of Farm Machinery 
was written by J. J. Thomas in 1869, before the general 
introduction of labor-saving machinery for farm work. 
Many books have been written on the various motors 
used for agricultural purposes, but it is not believed that 
an attempt has been made to place in one volume a dis- 
cussion of them all. The authors have felt the need of a 
text for instructional purposes, and it is this need that has 
prompted them to prepare this book. It is a revision of 
the lecture notes used before their classes for several 
years. These notes were prepared from a careful study 
of all the available literature on the subject, and from 
observation made in the field of the machines at work and 
in the factories where they are made. 

A list of the literature consulted is given at the close 
of the book. Free use has been made of all this as well 
as all the trade literature available, and for this an 
efifort has been made to give due credit. Many of the 
illustrations have been prepared from original drawings 
by the authors ; however, the larger number are those of 
machines upon the current market. 

A discussion of all the farm machines did not seem 
possible, and attention may be called to the omission of 



VI PREFACE 



^ 



seed grading and cleaning machinery, cotton machinery, 
potato machinery, garden machinery, and other classes. 
The amount of information at hand concerning these 
classes of machinery did not justify their inclusion. Farm 
Motors has been made more complete, but some of the 
motors used to a limited extent in agricultural practice, 
as hot-air engines and water-wheels, have been omitted. 
Although electrical machinery is not much used in agri- 
culture, its use is increasing and the interest in the sub- 
ject has been so general that a chapter on the same has 
been included. As the efificiency and life of farm 
machinery depends largely upon the way and manner it 
is repaired, a short chapter on the Farm Workshop has 
been added. 

To make instruction in Farm Machinery and Farm 
Motors efficient it should in all cases be supplemented 
with laboratory and field instruction, and it is not the 
purpose of this book to displace such instruction. 

An attempt has been made to make the material practi- 
cal, useful and helpful, and although written primarily 
for a text book, it is hoped that it will be useful to many 
engaged in practical work. 

The authors know that their attempt to prepare a text 
book has not been perfect, and not only will errors be 
found in the subject matter, but the material will lack 
pedagogic form in places. Any criticism or suggestions 
from instructors in these respects will be duly appre- 
ciated. They wish also to acknowledge the obligations 
they owe many friends for suggestions and aid in many 
ways. Thanks are due the publishers for their work in 
preparing the illustrations, which at first seemed to be an 
almost endless task. 

J. B. Davidson. 
L. W. Chase. 



CONTENTS 



PART I 

CHAPTER PAGE 

Introduction i 

I. Definitions and Mechanical Principles 8 

II. Transmission of Power 28 

III. Materials and the Strength of Materials .... 43 

IV. Tillage Machinery 51 

V. Tillage Machinery (Continued) 78 

VI. Seeding Machinery . 102 

VII. Harvesting Machinery 136 

VIII. Haying ]\Iachinery 162 

IX. Manure Spreaders IQI 

X. Threshing Machinery 203 

XI. Corn Machinery 221 

XII. Feed Mills 234 

XIII. Wagons. Buggies, and Sleds 241 

XIV. Pumping Machinery 258 

XV. The Value and Care of Farm Machinery .... 277 

P.^RT II 

CHAPTER PAGE 

Introduction 281 

XVI. Animal Motors 284 

XVII. Windmills 298 

XVIII. Steam Boilers 3i7 

XIX. Steam Engines 3oi 

XX. Gas. Oil. and Alcohol Engines 40i 

XXI. Traction Engines 436 

XXII. Electrical Machinery 46i 

XXIII. The Farm Shop 499 



FARM MACHINERY 

PART 1 



INTRODUCTION 

I. One of the requirements for a steady, healthy growth 
of any people or nation is a bountiful supply of food. 
The earth can be made to produce in abundance only 
when the soil is tilled and plants suitable for food are 
cultivated. As long as the people of the earth roamed 
about obtaining their subsistence by hunting and fishing, 
conditions were not favorable for a rapid increase in 
population or an advance in civilization. Tribes or 
nations constantly encroached upon each other's rights 
and were continually at war. History shows that when 
any nation, isolated so as to be protected from the attacks 
of other nations, devoted itself to agricultural pursuits, 
its government at once became more stable and life and 
property more secure. Protected in this way, a great 
nation, shut off from the rest of the world by natural 
means, and located in a fertile country, arose along the 
banks of the Nile long before any other nation reached 
prominence. The Gauls became mighty because they 
devoted themselves to agriculture and obtained in this 
way a more reliable supply of food. Pliny, the elder, in 
his writings tells of the fields of Gaul and describes some 
of the tools used. It has been estimated that there never 
were more than 400,000 Indians in North America, and 
they were often in want of food. Compare this number 
with the present population. The tribes that flourished 



H, FARM MACHINERY 

and increased in numbers were those who had fields of 
grain and a definite source of food. 

2. Change from hand to machine methods. — When 
people began to turn their attention to farming they 
began to devise tools to aid them in their work. Various 
kinds of hoes, crude plows, sickles, and scythes were 
invented, but were practically all hand tools. Work with 
these was necessarily very laborious and slow. The 
hours of labor in consequence were very long, and the 
social position of the tiller of the soil was low. He was 
in every sense of the term "the man with the hoe." He 
became prematurely old and bent ; his lot was anything 
but enviable. 

For more than 3.000 years the farmers of Europe, and 
in this country until after the Revolutionary War, used 
the same crude tools and primitive methods as were em- 
ployed by the Egyptians and the Israelites. In fact, it 
has been, relatively speaking, only a few years since the 
change from hand to machine methods took place. In 
the Twelfth Census Report the following statement is 
made : ''The year 1850 practically marks the close of the 
period in which the only farm implements and machinery 
other than the wagon, cart, and cotton gin were frhose 
which, for want of a better designation, may be called 
implements of hand production." 

McMaster, in his "History of the People of the United 
States," says : "The Massachusetts farmer who witnessed 
the Revolution plowed his land with the wooden bull 
plow, sowed his grain broadcast, and when it was ripe, 
cut it with a scythe and threshed it out on his barn floor 
with a flail." He writes further that the poor whites of 
Virginia in 1790 lived in log huts "with the chinks stuffed 
with clay ; the walls had no plaster, the windows had no 
glass, the furniture was such as they themselves had 



lN"IR0m'CT10N' 3 

made. Their grain was threshed by driving horses over 
it in the open field. When they ground it they used a 
rude pestle and mortar, or placed it in a hollow of a 
stone and beat it with another." 

3. Effects of the change. — At any rate, a great change 
has taken place and all in little over a half century. This 
great change from the simplest of tools to the modern, 
almost perfect implements, has produced a marked eft'ect 
upon the life of the farmer. He is no longer "the man 
W'ith the hoe." but a man well trained intellectually. 

4. Physical and mental changes. — It is not dillficult to 
realize that a great change for the better has taken place 
in the physical and mental nature of the farmer. It is 
vastly easier for a man to sit on a modern harvester, 
watch the machine, and drive the team, than it is to work 
all day with bended back, scuffling along, running a 
cradle. How much easier it is to handle the modern 
crop, though much larger, with the modern threshing 
machine, where the bundles are simply thrown into the 
feeder, than to spend the entire winter beating the grain 
out with a flail. The farmer can now do his work and 
still have time to plan his business and to think of im- 
provements. 

5. Length of the working day. — One of the marked 
effects of the change to modern machinery methods has 
been a shortening of the length of the working day. 
When the work was done by hand methods, the day 
during the busy season was from early morn till late at 
night. Often as much as 16 hours a day were spent in 
the fields. Now field work seldom exceeds 10 hours a day. 

6. Increase in wages. — According to AIcMaster,* in 
1794 ''in the States north of Pennsylvania" the wages of 

*Mc]\Iaster: "History of the People of the United States," 
Vol. II., p. 179. 



4 FARM MACHINERY 

the common laborer Avere not to exceed $3 per month, 
and "in Vermont good men were employed for £18 per 
year." Even as late as 1849, the wages, according to sev- 
eral authorities, did not exceed $120 a year. Under pres- 
ent conditions, the farm laborer is able to demand two, 
three, and even five times as much. In countries where 
hand methods are still practiced, wages are very low. 
Men are required to work all day from early morning till 
late at night for a few cents. In some of the Asiatic 
countries it is said that men work from four in the morn- 
ing until nine at night for 14 cents. Women receive only 
9 or 10 cents and children 7 or 8 cents. 

7. The labor of women. — Woman, so history relates, 
was the first agriculturist. Upon her depended the plant- 
ing and tending of the various crops. She was required 
to help more or less with the farm work as long as the 
hand methods remained. Machinery has relieved her of 
nearly all field work. Not only this, but many of the 
former household duties have been taken away. Spinning 
and weaving, soap-making and candle-making, although 
formerly household duties, are now turned over to the 
factory. Butter and cheese making are gradually becom- 
ing the work of the factory rather than that of the home. 
Sewing machines, washing machines, cream separators, 
and numerous other inventions have come to aid the 
housewafe with her work. 

8. Percentage of population on farms. — During the 
change from hand to machine methods there was a great 
decrease in the percentage of the people of the United 
States living upon the farms. It has been estimated that 
in 1800 97 per cent of the people were to be found upon 
the farms. By 1849 this proportion had decreased to 90 
per cent, and according to the Twelfth Census Report it 
was only 35.7 per cent. 



INTRODUCTION 5 

9. Increase in production. — Notwithstanding this de- 
crease in the per cent of the people upon the farms, there 
has been, since the introduction of machinery, a great in- 
crease in production per capita. In 1800 it is estimated 
that 5.50 bushels of wheat were produced per capita; in 
1850, according to the Division of Statistics of the De- 
partment of Agriculture, production had decreased to 
4.43 bushels. This was before the effect of harvesting 
machinery had begun to be felt. People were leaving the 
farms and the production of wheat per capita was falling 
off. The limit with hand methods had been reached. 
Economists were alarmed lest a time should come when 
the production would not supply the needs of the people. 
Through the aid of machinery the production increased 
to 9.16 bushels per capita in 1880, 7.48 bushels in 1890, 
and 8.66 bushels in 1900. Perhaps this also shows that 
the maximum production of wheat per capita with present 
machinery has been reached. The production of corn 
has also increased, but the increase is not so marked. 
The production of corn per capita in 1850 was 25.53 
bushels ; in 1900 it was 34.94 bushels. 

ID. Cost of production. — Although the cost of farm 
labor has doubled or trebled, the cost of production has 
decreased. According to the Thirteenth Annual Report 
of the Department of Labor, the amount of labor required 
to produce a bushel of wheat by hand was 3 hours and 
3 minutes, and now it is only 9 minutes and 58 seconds. 
The cost of production, as compiled by Quaintance,* was 
20 cents by hand (1829-30) and 10 cents by machinery 
(1895-96). It is also stated in the Year Book of the De- 
partment of Agriculture for 1899 that it formerly required 
II hours of man labor to cut and cure i ton of hay. Now 

*Tlie Influence of Farm Machinery on Production and Labor. 
Publications of the American Economic Association. Vol. V., 
No. 4. 



FARM MACHINERY 



the same work is accomplished in i hour and 39 min 
utes. The cost of the required labor has decreased from 
83 1/3 cents to 16 1/4 cents a ton. Not only is it true 
that machinery has revolutionized the work of making 
hay, but nearly every phase of farm work has been essen- 
tially changed. 

11. Quality of products. — Machinery has also improved 
the quality of farm products. Corn and other grains are 
planted at very nearly the proper time, owing to the fact 
that machinery methods are so much quicker. By hand 
methods the crop did not have time to mature. It was 
necessary to begin the harvest before the grain was ripe, 
and hence it was shrunken. The grain is obtained now 
cleaner and purer. It would be difficult at the present 
time to sell, for bread purposes, grain which had been 
threshed by the treading of animals over it. 

12. Summary. — Great changes can be accounted for by 
the introduction of machine methods for band methods. 
For all people this has been beneficial. It has caused the 
rise of our great nation on the Western Hemisphere. To 
no class, however, has this change been more beneficial 
than to the farm worker himself. J. R. Dodge sum- 
marized the benefits derived by the farm worker when 
he wrote : "As to the influence of machinery on farm 
labor, all intelligent expert observation declares it bene- 
ficial. It has relieved the laborer of much drudgery; 
made his work and his hours of service shorter; stimu- 
lated his mental faculties; given an equilibrium of effort 
to mind and body ; made the laborer a more efficient 
Avorker, a broader man, and a better citizen."* 

Conditions in America have been very favorable for 
the development of machinery. We have never had an 

*American Farm Labor in Rept. of Ind. Com. (1901), Vol, XL, 
p. III. 



:■« 



INTRODUCTION 7 

abundance of farm labor. The American inventor has 
surpassed all others in his ability to devise machines. 
By this machinery the farmer receives good compensa- 
tion for his services and is able to compete on foreign 
markets with cheap labor of other countries. 

Lastly, it seems conclusive that an agricultural college 
course is not complete in which the student does not 
study much about that which has made his occupatio'n 
exceptionally desirable. It should be an intensely prac- 
tical study, for under present conditions success or failure 
in farming operations depends largely upon the judicious 
use of farm machinery. 



CHAPTER I 

DEFINITIONS AND MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES 

13. Agricultural engineering is the name given to the 
agricultural achievements which require for their execu- 
tion scientific knowledge, mechanical training, and engi- 
neering skill. 

It has been but quite recently that departments have 
been organized in agricultural colleges to give instruction 
in agricultural engineering. The name is not as yet uni- 
versally adopted, the term farm mechanics or rural en- 
gineering being preferred by some. It is hoped that in 
time "agricultural engineering" will be generally accepted, 
as it seems to be the broadest and most appropriate term 
to be given instruction defined as above. Implement 
manufacturers in Europe have been pleased to call them- 
selves agricultural engineers, and the term is not alto- 
gether a new one. 

Agricultural engineering embraces such subjects as: 
(i) farm machinery, (2) farm motors, (3) drainage, 
(4) irrigation, (5) road construction, (6) rural architec- 
ture, (7) blacksmithing, and (8) carpentry. 

14. Farm machinery. — Part I. of this treatise, after the 
present chapter of definitions and mechanical principles 
and chapters on the transmission of power and the 
strength of materials, will be a discussion of the con- 
struction, adjustment, and operation of farm machinery, 
and will include the major portion of the implements and 
machines used in the -growing, harvesting, and preparing 
of farm crops, exclusive of those used in obtaining power. 
These will be considered in Part II. under the title of 



10 FARM MACHINERY 

P'arm Motors. The following definitions and explana- 
tions will prove helpful : 

15. A force produces or tends to produce or destroy 
motion. Forces vary in magnitude, and some means must 
be provided to compare them. Unit force corresponds to 
unit weight and is the force of gravitation on a definite 
mass. This unit is arbitrarily chosen and is called the 
pound. The magnitude of all forces, as the draft of an 
implement, is measured in pounds. Forces also have 
direction and hence may be represented graphically by a 
line. For this reason a force is sometimes called a vector 
quantity. Two or more forces acting on a rigid body act 
as one force called a resultant. 

Thus in Fig. i, O A and O B rep- 
resent in direction and magnitude 
two forces acting through the point 
O. O C is the diagonal of a paral- 
lelogram of which O A and O B are 
sides, and represents the combined 
^^^" action of the forces represented by 

O A and O B, or is the resultant of these forces. This 
principle is known as the parallelogram of forces. 

16. Mechanics is the science which treats of the action 
of forces upon bodies and the effect which they produce. 
It treats of the laws which govern the movement and 
equilibrium of bodies and shows how they may be util- 
ized. 

17. Work. — When a force acts through a certain dis- 
tance or when motion is produced by the action of a 
force, work is done. Work can therefore be defined as 
the product of force into distance. Work can be defined 
in another way as being proportional to the distance 
through which the force acts, and also to the magnitude 
of the force. 




DEFINITIONS AND MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES II 

i8. Unit of work. — It has been stated that the unit of 
force is the pound. The unit of distance is the foot. The 
unit of work is unit force acting through unit distance 
and is named the foot-pound. A foot-pound is then the 
amount of work performed in raising a mass weighing 
I pound I foot. It is to be noted that the amount of 
work done in raising i pound through lo feet is the same 
as raising lo pounds through i foot. It is to be noted 
further that, in considering the amount of work, time is 
not taken into account. It is the same regardless of 
whether i minute or many times i minute was used in 
performing the operation. The horse-power hour is an- 
other unit of work commonly used and will be under- 
stood after power has been defined. 

19. Power is the rate of work. To obtain the power 
received from any source the number of foot-pounds of 
work done in a given time must be determined. The unit 
of power commonly used is the horse power. 

20. A horse power is work at the rate of 33,000 foot- 
pounds a minute, or 550 pounds a second. That is, if a 
w^eight of 33.000 pounds be raised through i foot in i 
minute, one horse power of work is being done. This unit 
was arbitrarily chosen by early steam engine manufac- 
turers to compare their engines with the power of a horse. 

If a horse is walking 2.5 miles an hour and exerting a 
steady pull on his traces of 150 pounds, the effective 
energy which he develops is : 

1 50 X 5 280 X 2.5 _ J pj p 
60 X 33000 

21. A machine is a device for applying work. By it 
motion and forces arg modified so as to be used to greater 
advantage. A machine is not a source of work. In fact, 
the amount of work imparted to a machine always ex- 






12 FARM MACHINERY 

ceeds the amount received from it. Some work is used 
in overcoming- the friction of the machine. The ratio be- 
tween the amount of work received from a machine and 
the amount put into it is called the efficiency of the 
machine. 

22. Simple machines are the elements to which all ma- 
chinery may be reduced. A machine like a harvester, 
with systems of sprockets, gears, and cranks, consists 
only of modifications of the elements of machines. These 
elements are six in number and are called (i) the lever, 
(2) the wheel and axle, (3) the inclined plane, (4) the 
screw', (5^ the wedge, and (6) the pulley. These six may 
be conceived to be reduced to only two — the lever and 
the inclined plane. 

23. The law of mechanics holds that the power multi- 
plied by the distance through which it moves is equal to 
the weight multiplied by the distance through which it 
moves. Thus, a power of i pound moving 10 feet equals 
10 pounds moving i foot. This is true in theory, but in 
practice a certain amount must be added to overcome 
friction. 

24. The lever, the simplest of all machines, is a bar 
or rigid arm turning about a pivot called the fulcrum. 
The object to be moved is commonly designated as the 
weight, and the arm on which it is placed is called the 
weight arm. The force used is designated as the power, 
and the arm on which it acts is called the power arm. 
Levers are divided into three classes ; for an explanation 
of the classes refer to any text on physics.* The law of 
mechanics may be applied to all levers in this manner. 
The power multiplied by the power arm equals the weight 
multiplied by the weight arm. 

*"General Physics." Bj' C. S. Hastings and F. E. Beach and 
others. 



DEFINITIONS AND MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES 



13 



If P = Power, Pa = Power arm, W = Weight, and Wa = VVeiglit 
arm, P X Pa — W X Wa. 

If three of these quantities are known, the other is 
easily calculated. The arm or leverage is always the 
perpendicular distance between the direction of the force 
and the fulcrum. 

25. The two-horse evener or doubletree. — The two- 
horse evener is a lever of the second class where the clevis 
pin for the whififletree at one end acts as the fulcrum for 



' "V 




J 



ZZ' 



*1' 



435 







Ids 



i..i 



FIG. 2 — WAGON EVENER IN OUTLINE. SHOWING THE ADVANTAGE THE 

LEADING HORSE HAS WHEN THE CLEVIS HOLES 

ARE NOT A STRAIGHT LINE 



the power applied by the horse at the other end. The 
weight is the load at the middle. If the three holes for 
the attachment of each horse and the load be in a straight 
line and the arms be of equal length, each horse pulls an 
equal share of the load even if the evener is not at right 
angles with the line of draft. But more often the end 
holes in the evener are placed in a line behind the hole 
for the center clevis pin. Then if one horse permits his 
end of the evener to recede, he will have the larger portion 
of the load to pull because his lever arm has been short- 



14 FARM MACHINERY 

ened more than the lever arm of the other horse. The 
author's attention has been called to a wagon doubletree 
in which the center and end holes for clevis pins are made 
by iron clips riveted to the front and back sides of the 
wood. The center hole was thus placed 4^ inches out 
of the line of the end holes. This evener is shown in out- 
line in Big. 2. 

By calculation it was found that if one horse was 8 
inches in the advance of the other, the rear horse would 
pull 8.4 per cent more than the first, or 4.06 per cent more 
of the total load. If this difiference was 16 inches, the 
rear horse would pull 19 per cent more than the first, or 
8 per cent more of the total load. 

26. Eveners. — When several horses are hitched to a 
machine as one team, a system of levers is used to divide 
the load proportionately. The law of mechanics applies 
in all cases, noting that the lever arm is the perpendicular 
distance between the direction of the force and the ful- 
crum or pivot. In general, it may be said that there is 
nothing" to be gained by a complicated evener. If there 
is a flexible connection and an equal division of the draft, 
the simple evener is as good as the complicated or so- 
called "patent" evener. The line of draft cannot he offset 
without a force acting across it. This is accomplished 
with a tongue truck, which seems to be the logical 
method. 

Fig. 3 illustrates some good types of eveners. 

27. Giving one horse the advantage. — It often occurs 
in working young animals or horses of different weights 
that it is desired to give one the advantage in the share 
of work done. This is accomplished by making one 
evener arm longer than the other, giving the horse 
which is to have the advantage the longer arm. This 
may be done by setting out his clevis, setting in the clevis 



DEFINITIONS AND MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES 



15 



of the other horse, or placing- the center clevis out toward 
the other horse. The correct division of the load between 
horses of different sizes is not definitely known, but it is 




Five Horse Tandem. 

FIG. 3 — GOOD TVPES OF EVENERS WHICH WILL DIVIDE EQUALLY 
THE DRAFT 

thought that the division should be made in about the 
same proportion as each horse's weight is of their com- 
bined weight. 

28. Inclined plane. — The tread power is an example of 
the utilization of the inclined plane, in which the plane 
is an endless apron whose motion is transferred to a 
shaft. The tread power is illustrated in Part II., Farm 
Motors. 

29. The screw is a combination of the inclined plane 



i 



i6 



FARM MACHINERY 



and the lever, where the inclined plane is wrapped around 
a cylinder and engages a nut. The pitch of a screw is the 
distance between a point on one thread 
to a like point on the next, or, in other 
words, it is i inch divided by the num- 
ber of threads to the inch. Thus, 8 
threads to i inch is i/8 pitch, 24 threads 
1/24 pitch. There is a great gain of 
power in the screw because the load is 
moved a short distance compared with 
the power. A single-pitch thread ad- 
vances along the length of the screw 
once the pitch at each turn ; a double 
pitch advances twice the pitch. The 
part of a bolt containing a screw thread 
on the inside is spoken of as a nut. 
The name burr is often given to the 
nut, but burr applies more particu- 
Yj^ larly to washers for rivets. The tool 

used in making the thread in a nut is 
called a tap, and the one for making 
outside threads a die. 

30. A pulley consists primarily of a 
grooved wheel and axle over which 
runs a cord. 

A simple pulley changes only the di- 
rection of the force. By a combination 
of pulleys the power may be increased indefinitely. The 
wheel which carries the rope is called a sheave, the cover- 
ing and axle for the sheave the block, and the whole a 
pulley. A combination of blocks and ropes is called a 
tackle. With the common tackle block, the power is 
multiplied by the number of strands of rope less one. 
The mechanical advantage may be obtained in another 




FIG. 4 — SIMPLE PUL- 
LEY, WHICH ONLY 
CHANGES THE DI- 
RECTION OF A FORCE 



DEFINITIONS AND MECHANICAL l^RINCIPLES 



17 



way, as it is equal to the number of strands supporting 
the weight. This will agree with the former method 
when the power is acting downward. If the power is act- 
ing upward instead of downward, the power strand would 
be supporting the weight, and so should not be deducted 
from the total number to obtain the mechanical advantage. 
Fig. 5 illustrates a tackle which has six strands, but 




FORCE MAY BE 
MULTIPLIED MANY 
TIMES BY A TACKLE 
OF THIS KIND 



FIG. 6 — DIFFEREN- 
TIAL TACKLE BY 
WHICH HEAVY 
WEIGHTS MAY BE 
RAISED 



only five are supporting the weight, so the mechanical 
advantage in this case is five. If the weight be 1,000 
pounds, as marked, a force of 200 pounds besides a force 
sufficient to overcome friction \yill be needed to raise the 
weight. This tackle has a special designed sheave which, 
when the free rope end is carried to one side and let out 



i8 



FARM MACHINERY 



slightly, the rope is wedged in a special groove and the 
weight held firmly in place. 

The differential pulley shown in Fig. 6 is a very power- 
ful device for raising heavy weights and is very simple. 
The principle involved is that the upper sheaves are of 
different diameters, fastened rigidly together and en- 
gaging the chain in such a manner as to prevent it from 
slipping over them. Thus, as the sheaves are rotated, one 
of the strands of chains carrying the load is taken up 
slightly faster than the other is let out, shortening their 
combined length and raising the load. 

31. Dynamometers* are instruments used in determin- 
ing the force transmitted to or from a machine or imple- 




FIG. 7 — PRONY brake: ONE FORM OF ABSORPTION DYNAMOMETER 



ment. They are, therefore, very important instruments 
for the study and testing of machinery. Having deter- 
mined with this instrument the force, it is an easy matter 
to calculate the power. 

32. Absorption dynamometers are those which absorb 
the power in measuring the force transmitted. The Prony 
brake as illustrated in Fig. 7 is the common device used 

*For additional literature on the measurement of power see 
"Experimental Engineering," by R. C. Carpenter. 



DEFINITIONS AND MECHANICAL PRINCtPLES 



19 



in measuring the output of motors. The force trans- 
mitted is measured by a pair of platform scales or a spring 
balance. The distance through which this force acts in i 
minute is calculated from the number of revolutions of 
the rotating shaft per minute and the distance through 
which the force would travel in one revolution if released. 
The revolutions of the shaft are obtained by means of a 
speed indicator, a type of which is illustrated in Fig. 8. 




pjG 8— SPEED indicator: an instrument for determining the speed 



If 77^ ratio between diameter of circle and the circumfer- 
ence ^3.1416, 
a =^ length of brake arm in feet, 
G = net brake load (weight on scale less weight of brake 

on scale), 
)i = revolutions a minute, 
2 TT (J a jj 

"■"■ 33000 

Dynamometers which do not absorb the power are 
called transmission dynamometers. 

33. Traction dynamometers. — Dynamometers used in 
connection with farm machinery to determine the draft 
of implements are called traction dynamometers. They 
are instruments on the principle of a pair of scales placed 
between an implement and the horses or engine. They 
indicate the number of poimds of draft or pull required to 
move the implement. The traction dynamometer is a 
transmission dynamometer. The power is not all used 



20 FARM MACHINERY 

up in the measuring", but transmitted to the implement 
or machine where the work is being done. 

The operation of the traction dynamometer is the same 
as that of a heavy spring balance. The spring may be a 
coil, flat or elliptical, or an oil or water piston may be 
used in place of the spring and the pull determined by 
the pressure produced.- 

34. Direct-reading dynamometers. — The more simple 
types of dynamometers have a convenient scale and a 
needle which indicates the pull in pounds. A second 
needle is usually provided which shows the maximum 
pull which has been reached during the test. A dyna- 
mometer of this kind is illustrated in Fig. 9. This has 




FIG. 9 DIRECT-READING DYNAMOMETER 

elliptical springs and a dial upon wdiich the draft is regis- 
tered. It is difficult to obtain accurate readings from a 
dynamometer of this sort on account of vibration caused 
by the change of draft due to rough ground or the un- 
steady motion of the horse. 

35. Self-recording dynamometers. — A recording dyna- 
mometer records by a pen or pencil line the draft. A 
strip of paper is passed under the needle carrying the 
pen point, whose position is determined by the pull. The 
height of the pen line above a base line of no load is pro- 
portional to the pull in pounds. A diagram obtained in 



DEFINITIOXS AM) M ICCII AN HAL I'K I XCI IMJvS 



21 



lliis way is shown in I'ii;'. lo. L)ftcn the paper is ruled 
to scale so that direct readings may be made from the 
paper. Methods of rotatinj;' the reel or spool vary in 
different makes. Some German dynamometers rotate the 



m^^^^^ 



FIG. 10 A RECORD OF DRAFT OBTAINED BY A RECORDING DYNAMOMETER 

reel by a wheel W'hich runs along on the ground and is 
connected to the reel by a flexible shaft, as in Fig. ii. 
This method is very satisfactory, except that the wheel is 




FIG. II — A GERMAN RECORDING DYNAMOMETER WHICH HAS THE REEL 
DRIVEN CY CLOCK-WORK 

often in the way. Distances along the paper are in this 
case proportional to the distance passed over by the im- 
plement. 



h 



22 



FARM MACHINERY 



Another method is to rotate the reel b}^ clock-work. 
Then distances along" the paper are proportional to time. 




FIG. 12— GIDDINGS KECUKDING DYNAMOMETER, WHICH HAS THE REEL 
DRIVEN BY CLOCK-WORK 



If the velocity be uniform, the distances are appioxi- 
mately proportional to the distance passed over as be- 



DEFINITIONS AND MECHANICAL rUINCII'LES 2^ 

fore. \\ hen the distances alonj; the i)ai)er arc propor- 
tional" to the ground passed over, the amount of work 
may be obtained easily. The (jiddings dynamometer, as 
illustrated in Fig. 12. is made in this way. It also has 
elliptical springs. 

Still another method is made use of in another type of 
dynamometer, in which the in-and-out movement of the 
pull head is made to rotate the reel. This method is not 




FIG. 13 — THE PLANIMETER USED TO KIND THE AVERAGE DRAFT FROM 

DYNAMOMETER RECORDS. THERE ARE SEVERAL TYPES 

OF THIS INSTRUMENT 

SO satisfactory because distances along the paper are not 
proportional to anything. Tf the draft remains constant, 
there is no rotation of the reel at all. Various devices are 
provided dynamometers to add the draft for stated 
distances, and in this way obtain the work done. A tape 
line 100 feet long is sometimes used to rotate the reel of 
the dynamometer. 

To obtain the mean draft a line is drawn through the 
graph of the pen point, eliminating the sharp points. 
Then the diagram may be divided into any number of 
equal parts and the sum of the draft at the center of 
these divisions divided by the number of divisions. The 
quotient will be the mean draft. 

An instrument called the planimeter (Fig. 13) will de- 



24 



FARM MACHINERY 



I 



termine the area of the diagram when the point is passed 
aronnd it. To obtain the mean height and the average 
draft it is only necessary to divide the area of the diagram 
by its length. This can only be done when distances 
along the paper are proportional to the distance passed 
over by the implement. 

36. Steam and gas engine indicators. — The indicator, 
although not used much in connection with farm engines, 





FIG. 14 — THE STEAM OR GAS ENGINE INDICATOR. AN INSTRUMENT USED 
TO OBTAIN A RECORD OF THE PRESSURE IN THE ENGINE CYLINDER 
AT VARIOUS POINTS OF THE STROKE 

should be mentioned at this point under a discussion of 
the methods of measuring work. 

Fig. 14 illustrates a steam engine indicator complete, 
and also a section of it showing the mechanism inside. In 
brief, the indicator consists in a drum, upon which a paper 
card is mounted to receive the record or diagram, and a 
cylinder carefully fitted with a piston upon which the 
pressures of the steam or gases from the engine cylinder 
act. The drum by a mechanism called a reducing motion 
is given a motion corresponding to that of the engine 



DEl^INITIONS AND MECHANICAL PRINCIPLES 



25 




FIG. 15— AN ACTUAL INDICATOR DIA- 
GRAM OBTAINED FROM A GAS EN- 
GINE, WITH THE SCALE OF THE 
SPRING APPENDED 



piston, and the pressure of the gases from the engine 
cylinder acting on the piston of the indicator compresses 
a calibrated spring above. The amount of pressure is re- 
corded with a pencil point by a suitable mechanism on 
the paper card. Thus if a diagram is obtained from an 
engine at work, it not only permits a study of the engine 

in regard to the action of 
valves, igniter, etc., but 
also enables the amount of 
work performed in the en- 
gine cylinder to be calcu- 
lated. 

Fig. 15 shows an actual 
diagram taken from a gas 
engine. As the pressure 
varies throughout the stroke, an instrument like the 
planimeter of Fig. 13 must be used to average the pres- 
sure for the entire working stroke of the piston, and sub- 
tract the pressure required in the preliminary and ex- 
haust strokes. This average pressure is called the mean 
effective pressure (M.E.P.). Knowing the distance the 
engine piston travels a minute doing work, the area of 
the surface on which the pressure acts, and the mean ef- 
fective pressure, it is possible to calculate the rate of 
work or the horse power. The horse power obtained in 
this way is called the indicated horse power (I.H.P.), 
and differs from the brake horse power (B.H.P.) by the 
power required to overcome friction in the engine. The 
ratio of the brake horse power to the indicated horse 
power is called the mechanical efficiency of the engine. 

If P = Mean effective pressure, 
L = Length of stroke in feet, 
A 3= Area of piston in square inches, 
N = Number of working strokes a minute, 
PLA.N 

I.H.P.:::^ 

33>ooo 



26 FARM MACHINERY 

It is to be noted that in double-acting engines the faces 
of the piston on which the pressure in the engine cylinder 
acts differ by the area of the cross section of the piston 
rod. IL is customary to calculate the indicated horse 
power for each end of the cylinder, and take the sum for 
the indicated horse power of the engine. 

37. Heat. — Work, as measured by the foot-pound, is 
mechanical energy or the energy of motion. Energy is 
defined as the power to produce a change of any kind and 
manifests itself in many forms. It may be transformed 
from one form to another without affecting the whole 
amount. Heat represents one form of energy, and it is 
the purpose of all heat engines to transform this heat 
energy into mechanical energy. Like work, heat may be 
measured. The unit used for this purpose is the British 
thermal unit. 

I'he British thermal unit (B.T.U.) is the amount of 
heat required to raise the temperature of i pound of water 
1° F. To make the unit more specific, the change of tem- 
perature is usually specified as being between 62° and 
63° F. The work equivalent of the British thermal unit 
is sometimes called the Joule (J) and is equal to 778 foot- 
pounds of work. 

Thermal efficiency is a term used in connection with 
heat engines to represent the ratio between the amount 
of energy received from the engine in the form of work 
and the amount given to it in the form of heat. The 
thermal efficiency of a steam engine seldom exceeds 15 
per cent and of a gas engine 30 per cent. 

38. Electrical energy. — By means of a dynamo, mechan- 
ical energy may be converted into electrical energy or the 
energy of an electric current. An electric current may 
be likened to the flow of water through a pipe in that it 
has pressure and volume. In the water pipe the pressure 



DEFINITIONS AND M I-XII ANICAL I'Kl NCI ri.KS 2^ 

is measured in pounds to the square inch, and the vohime 
by the area of the cross section of the pipe. \Vith an 
electric current the pressure is measured in volts and the 
volume or amount of current in amperes. Thus a current 
may have a pressure or voltage of i lo volts and a vi)lume 
or amperage of 7 amperes. The product of volts into am- 
peres gives watts. An electrical current of 746 watts is 
equal to one horse power. Electric energy is bought and 
sold by the watt-hour, or the larger unit, the kilowatt- 
hour, which is 1,000 watt-hours. 



CHAPTER II 

TRANSMISSION OF POWER 

It is the function of all machines to receive energy 
from some source and distribute it to the various parts 
where it will be converted into useful work. This chapter 
will treat of the devices used in the transmission and dis- 
tribution of power and the loss of power during trans- 
mission. 

39. Belting. — Belting is one of the oldest and most com- 
mon devices used for the transmission of power from one 
rotating shaft to another. The transmission depends 
upon the friction between the belt and the pulley face ; 
that is, the belt clings to the pulley face and causes it to 
rotate as the belt travels around it. The sides of a belt, 
when connecting two pulleys and transmitting power, are 
under unequal tension. The effectual tension or actual 
force transmitted is the difference between the tensions 
on each side. The effectual tension multiplied by the 
velocity of the belt in feet a minute will give the foot- 
pounds of work transmitted a minute. Thus the power 
varies directly with effectual tension and the velocity of 
the belt. 

40. Horse power of a leather belt. — It is possible to 
make up a formula with the above quantities to be 
used in the calculation of the power of a belt or the 
size required to transmit a certain povver. The fol- 
lowing is a common rule for single-ply belting, which 
assumes an eft'ectual tension of 33 pounds an inch of 
width : 



TRANSMISSION OF TOWER 29 

H. P. ^ Horse power, 

t':= Velocity in feet a minute, 
zv = Width of belt in inches. 

H. F-^:^ 

1000 

The quantity z' may be calculated from the number of 
revolutions a minute and the diameter of the driving 
pulley. The velocity of belts rarely exceeds 4,500 feet a 
minute. The highest efficiency of belt transmission is ob- 
tained from belting when there is no slipping and little 
stretching, and when the tension on the belt does not 
create an undue pressure on the bearings. 

41. Leather belting, — Good leather belting will last 
longer than any other when protected from heat and 
moisture. A good belt should last for lo to 15 years of 
continuous service. Best results are obtained when the 
hair or grain side of the leather is run next to the pulley. 
When the belt is put on the opposite way, the grain side, 
which is firmer and has the greater part of the strength of 
the belt, is apt to become cracked and the strength of the 
belt much reduced. 

42. Care of leather belts. — Belts should be occasionally 
cleaned and oiled to keep them soft and pliable. There 
are good dressings upon the market, and others that are 
certainly injurious. Neatsfoot oil is a very satisfactory 
dressing. Mineral oils are not very satisfactory, as a rule. 
Rosin is considered injurious, and it is doubtful if it is 
necessary to use it on a belt in good condition. With 
horizontal belts it is desirable to have the under side the 
driving side, for then the sag of the slack side causes 
more of the belt to come in contact with the pulleys and 
will prevent slippage to some extent. 

43. Rubber belting. — Good rubber belting is of perfect 
uniformity in width and thickness and will resist a greater 
degree of heat and cold than leather. It is especially well 



3© FARM MACHINERY 

adapted to wet places and where it will be exposed to 
the action of steam. Rubber belting, which clings well to 
the pulley, is less apt to slip and may be called upon to 
do very heavy service. Although not as durable as 
leather, it is quite strong, but offers a little difficulty in 
the making of splices. Rubber belting is made from two- 
ply to eight-ply in thickness. A four-ply belt is consid- 
ered the equal of a single-ply leather belt in the trans- 
mission of power. All oil and grease must be kept away 
from rubber belting. 

44. Canvas belting is used extensively for the trans- 
mission of power supplied by portable and traction en- 
gines. It is very strong and durable, and is especially 
well adapted to withstand hard service. When used in 
the field it is usually made into endless belts. It has one 
characteristic which bars its extended use between pul- 
leys at a fixed distance, and that is its stretching and con- 
tracting, due to moisture changes. Canvas belting, like 
rubber belting, is made in various thicknesses from two- 
ply up. A four-ply belt is usually considered the equal of 
a single leather belt. 

45. Length of belts. — Length of belts is usually deter- 
mined after the pulleys are in place by wrapping a tape 
line around the pulleys. When this cannot be done con- 
veniently, the following approximate rule taken from 
Kent's Mechanical Engineer's Pocketbook may be 
used : "Add the diameter of the two pulleys, divide by 
two, and multiply the quotient by 3^4 > and add the 
product to twice the distance between the centers of the 
shafts." 

46. Lacing of belts. — Lacing with a rawhide thong is 
the common method used in connecting the ends of a belt. 
A laced belt should run noiselessly over the pulleys and 
should be as pliable as any part of the belt. The holes 



TRANSMISSION OF POWER 



3T 



should be at least five-eighths inches from the edge and 
should be placed directly opposite. An oval punch is the 
best, making- the long diameter of the hole parallel with 
the belt. With narrow belts only a single row of holes 
need be punched, but with wide belts it is necessary to 
punch a double row of holes. 

By oiling or wetting the end of the lace and then burn- 
ing to a crisp with a match the lacing may be performed 

more easily. Begin lacing at 
the center of the belt and never 
cross or twist the lace or have 
more than two thicknesses of 
lace on the pulley side of the 
belt. In lacing canvas belts, 
the holes should be made with 
a belt awl. When the lacing is 
finished it may be pulled 
through a small extra hole and 
the lace cut so as to catch over 
the edge. By this method, ty- 
ing of the lace is avoided. Fig. 
i6 illustrates four good meth- 
ods of lacing a belt with a 
thong. 

I shows a method of lacing 
a belt with a single row of 
holes. 

2 shows a light hinge lace for a belt to run around 
an idler. 

3 shows a double row lace. 

4 shows a heavy hinge lace. 

47. Wire belt lacing makes a very good splice. The 
splice when properly made is smooth and well adapted 
for leather and canvas belting. When this lacing is used, 




FIG. 16 — FOUR GOOD STYLES 
OF BELT LACING 



32 



FARM MACHINERY 



m 



the holes should be made with a small punch, the thick- 
ness of the belt from the edge and twice the thickness 
apart. The lacing should not be crossed on the pulley 
side of the belt. 

48. Pulleys. — Pulleys are made of wood, cast iron, and 
steel. They are also constructed solid or in one piece 
and divided into halves. It is best to have a large cast 
pulley divided, as the large solid pulley is often weakened 
by contraction in cooling after being cast. For most 
purposes the iron pulley is the most satisfactory, as it is 
neat and durable. Belts do not cling to 
iron pulleys well, and hence they are often 
covered with leather to increase their driv- 
ing power. Often the driving power is in- 
creased one-fourth in this way. 

Pulleys are crowned or have an oval face 
in order to keep the belt in the center. The 
tendency of the belt is to run to the highest 
point, as shown in Fig. 17. The pulley that 
imparts motion to the belt is called the 
driver and the one that receives its motion 
from the belt the driven. 

49. Rules for calculating speed of pul- 
leys. — Case I. The diameters of the driver 
and driven and the revolutions per minute 
of the driver being given, to find the number of revolu- 
tions per minute of the driven. Rule : Multiply the 
diameter of the driver by its r.p.m. and divide the product 
by the diameter of the driven ; the quotient will be the 
r.p.m. of the driven. 

Case II. The diameter and the revolutions per minute 
of the driver being given, to find the diameter of the 
driven that shall make any given number of revolutions 



\ 



FIG. 17 — SHOW 

ING THE 

EFFECT OF 

CROWN ON 

PULLEYS 



TRANSMISSION OF POWER 



33 




FIG. l8 — MALLEABLE LINK BELTING 
OF ROTATING SHAFTS 



per minute. Rule : Multiply the diameter of the driver 
by its r.p.m. and divide the product by the r.p.m. of the 
driven ; the quotient will be its diameter. 

Case III. To ascertain the size of the driver. Rule: 
Multiply the diameter of the driven by the r.p.m. de- 
sired that it should 
make and divide the 
product by the revolu- 
tions of the driver; the 
quotient will be the size 
of the driver. 

No allowance is made 
in the above rules for 
slip. 

50. Link belting. — A 
common means of distributing power to various parts of 
a machine is by link belting. Chain link belting is 
adapted to almost all purposes except high speed. Two 
kinds of link belting are now found in general use. One 
'Style is made of malle- 
able iron links (Fig. 
18) and the other 
crimped steel (Fig. 19). 
In regard to the desira- 
bility of each, data is 
not at hand. However, 
it is stated that the steel 
links wear longer, but "^- i'^steel link belting 

cause the sprockets to wear faster. If this be true, the 
steel belting should be used on large sprockets and the 
malleable confined to the smaller sprockets. 

51. Rope transmission often has many advantages over 
belt transmission in that the first cost of installation is 




34 



FARM MACHINERY 



less, less power is lost 
by slippage, and the di- 
rection of transmission 
may be easily changed. 
Transmission ropes are 
made of hemp, manila, 
and cotton. Cotton rope 
is not as strong as the 
others, but is much more 
durable, especially when 
run over small pulleys or sheaves. The 
groove of the pulley or sheaves should be 
of such a size and shape as to cause the 
rope to wedge into it, thus permitting the 
effective tension of rope to be increased to 
its working strength. 

Fig. 20 illustrates a rope transmission 
system. Transmission ropes, to insure the 
highest efficiency in respect to the amount 
of power transmitted and the durability of 
the ropes, should have a velocity of from 
3,000 to 4,ooo feet a minute. To lubricate 
the surface of the rope and prevent it from 
.fraying, a mixture of beeswax and graphite 
is good. 

52. Wire rope or cable transmission. — 
For transmission of power to a distance 
and between buildings, wire rope has many 
advantages. If the distance of transmis- 
sion be over 500 feet, relay stations with 
idler pulleys should be installed to carry 
the rope. Pulleys or sheaves for wire rope 
should not have grooves into which the 
rope may wedge, as this is very detrimental 




FIG. 20 — TRANS- 
MISSION OF 
POWER BY ROPES 



TRANSMISSION OF POWKR 



35 



(o the durability of the rope. The sheaves for wire rope 
should have grooves filled with rubber, wood, or other 



material to give greater adhesion. 



Fig. 21 illustrates how a wire rope may be used to 
transmit power between buildings. For tables useful in 




FIG. 21 — TRAN.SMISSION OF POWER BY A WIRE ROPE 




determining the size of rope required for a rope trans- 
mission, see any engineering handbook. They require 
too much space to be included in this work.* 

53. Rope splice. — To splice a rope the ends should be 




*^^^2^222^ZS2EZ2?2a 



FIG. 22 — METHOD OF SPLICING A ROPE 

cut ofT square and the strands unbraided for not less than 
23/2 feet and crotched together as shown at i in Fig. 22. 
After the strands of one end are placed between the 
strands of the other, untwist one strand as at C and 

*" Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book." By William Kent. 



36 



FARM MACHINERY 



wind the corresponding strand of the other rope end into 
its place until about 9 to 12 inches remain. After this is 
done, the strand should be looped under the other, form- 
ing the knot shown at B, with the strand following the 
same direction as the other strands of the rope. Another 
strand is now unwound in the opposite direction and the 
same kind of knot formed. The long ends of the un- 
wound strands are cut to the same length as the short 
ones, and the short ends woven into the rope by passing 
over the adjacent strand and under the next, and so on. 
This is continued until the end of the strand is com- 
pletely woven into the rope. The same operation is fol- 




FIG. 23 — THE TRANSMISSION OF THE POWER OF A WINDMILL TO A PUMP 
AT A DISTANCE BY MEANS OF TRIANGLES AND WIRES 



lowed with all of the strands until a smooth splice is ob- 
tained. The above directions apply well for splicing 
ropes used with haying machinery. The same method 
may be used with transmission rope, although with the 
latter the splice is often made much longer. 

54, Triangles, — A very handy method of transmitting 
the power of a windmill to a pump at a distance is by 
means of triangles, as illustrated in Fig. 23. These tri- 
angles are attached to each other by common wire, and, 
if the distance is great, stations with rocker arms are 
provided to carry the wires. When triangles are used to 
connect a windmill to a pump the wires are often crossed 



TRANSMISSION OF TOWFR 



37 



in order that the up stroke of the pump will be made with 
the up stroke of the windmill. 

55. Gearing. — Spur gears are wheels with the teeth 
or cogs ranged around the outer or inner surface of the 
rim in the direction of radii from the center, and their 
action is that of two cylinders rolling together. To trans- 
mit uniform motion, each tooth must conform to a definite 
profile designed for that particular gear or set of gear 
wheels. The two curves to which this profile may be 
constructed are the involute and the cycloid. Gear wheels 
must remain at a fixed distance from each other, or the 
teeth will not mesh properly. 

Fig. 24 illustrates some of the common terms used in 
connection with gear wheels. Bevel gears have teeth 



MOENOUM a«at 

PITCH CIRat 

moTciKCLt 




FIG. 24 — SPUR GEARING 



similar to spur gears, and their action is like that of two 
cones rolling together. 

The teeth of gear wheels are cast or machine cut. 
Most of the gear wheels found on agricultural machines 
have the teeth simply cast, as this is the cheaper method 
of construction. Where smoothness of running is de- 
sired, the teeth are machined in, and the form of each 
tooth is more perfect, insuring smoother action. The 



38 FARM MACHINERY 

cream separator has machine-cut gears. Very large gear 
wheels have each tooth inserted in a groove in the gear 
wheel rim. Such a tooth is called a cog; hence the term 
cog is often applied to all forms of the gear tooth. Cogs 
may be made of metal or wood. 

Like pulleys, gear wheels are spoken of as the driver 
and the driven. To find the speed ratio of gear wheels, 
the following rule may be used : 

Rule : Revolution of driver per minute, multiplied by 
the number of teeth in driver, equals the revolution of the 
driven per minute, multiplied by the number of teeth in 
driven. 

56. Shafting. — Where several machines are to be 
operated from one power unit, it is necessary to provide 
shafting on which pulleys are placed. Shafting should 
be supported by a hanger at least every 8 feet, and the 
pulleys placed as near as possible to the hangers. Thurs- 
ton gives the following formula for cold-rolled iron shaft- 
ing: 

d'R 
H. P.: 



55 

when H.P. is the horse power transmitted, d is the 
diameter of shaft in inches, R the revolutions per min- 
ute. Steel shafting will transmit somewhat more power 
than iron, and some difterence may be made for the way 
the power is taken from the shaft ; but the above rule is 
considered a safe average. 

57. Friction. — It has been stated that a machine will 
not deliver as much energy as it receives because a cer- 
tain amount must be used to overcome friction. Friction 
is the resistance met with when one surface slides over 
another. Since machines are made of moving parts, 
friction must be encountered continually. In the majority 
of cases it is desired to keep friction to a minimum, but in 



4 



TRANSMISSION OF TOWER 39 

Others it is required. In the case of transmission of 
power by belting it is absolutely necessary. 

58. Coefficient of friction is the ratio between the force 
tending to bring two surfaces into close contact and the 
force required to slide the surfaces over each other. This 
force is always greater at the moment sliding begins. 
Hence it is said that friction of rest is greater than sliding 
friction. 

The following table of coefficients of friction is given 
to show the eft'ect of lubrication ( Enc. Brit.) : 

Wood on wood, dry 0.25 to 0.5 

soaped 0.2 

Metals on oak, dry 0.25 to 0.6 

' wet 0.24 to 0.26 

" " " soaped 0.2 

" " metal, dry 0.15 to 0.2 

" " " wet 0.3 

Smooth surfaces occasionally lubricated.... 0.07 to 0.08 

thoroughly " .... 0.03 to 0.036 




FIG. 25 — ROLLER BEARINGS AS APPLIED TO A MOWER 



59. Rolling friction. — When a l)ody is rolled over a 
surface a certain amount of resistance is offered. This 
resistance is termed rolling friction. Rolling friction is 
due to a slight compression or indentation of the surfaces 
under the load, hence is much less with hard surfaces 



40 FARM MACHINERY 

than with soft. Rolling friction is that met with in ball 
and roller bearings, and is much less than sliding friction. 
Roller bearings reduce friction greatly. Ball bearings 
may be used advantageously when end thrust is to be 
overcome or where they can be used in pairs. They are 
not suitable for carrying heavy loads. 

60. Lubrication. — The object of lubrication is to reduce 
friction to a minimum. A small quantity of oil is placed 
in a box and a thin film adheres both to the surface of 
the journal and also to the bearing, so in reality the 
friction takes place between liquid surfaces. The lubri- 
cant also fills the unevenness of the surfaces, so that there 
is no interlocking of the particles that compose them. 
Friction with a lubricant varies greatly with the quality 
of lubricant and the temperature. 

61. Choice of lubricant. — For heavy pressures the lubri- 
cant should be thick so as to resist being squeezed out 
under the load, while for light pressures thin oil should 
be used so that its viscosity will not add to the friction. 
Thus, for a wagon, heavy grease should be used, while 
for a cream separator of high speed a thin oil is necessary. 
Temperature must also be taken into account in choosing 
a lubricant. 

Solid substances in a finely divided state, such as mica 
and graphite, are used to reduce friction. The practice 
seems to be a very good one. This is especially true with 
graphite in bearings that can be oiled only occasionally, 
as the bearings of a windmill. 

62. Bearings should be of sufBcient size that the lubri- 
cant will not be squeezed out from between the journal 
and the bearing. In the design of machinery a certain 
pressure limit must not be exceeded. It is better to have 
the journal and bearing made out of different materials, 
as the friction in this case is less and there is a less ten- 



TRANSMISSION OF TOWER 



41 



dcncy for the surfaces to alirade. Brass, bronze, and 
babbit arc used for bearings with a steel journal. It is 
highly essential that the bearing be kept free from all 
dirt and grit. Occasionally it is better to let some minor 
bearings go entirely without lubrication, for the oil only 




FIG. 26 — A SELF-OILING AND SELF-ALIGNING BEARING. OFTEN THE OIL 

RESERVOIR BELOW THE RINGS IS ENLARGED AND THE 

WICK DISPENSED WITH 

causes the gathering of grit and sand to grind out the 
bearing. 

63. Heating of boxes ma}^ be due to (i) insufficient 
lubrication, (2) dirt or grit, (3) the cap may be screwed 
down too tight, (4) the box may be out of line and the 
shaft may bind, (5) the collar or the pulley bears too 
hard on the end, or (6) the belt may be too tight. 

Self-oiling boxes are very desirable where they can be 



42 FARM MACHINERY 

used, as they have a supply of oil which is carried up to 
the top of the shaft by a chain or ring. It is necessary 
to replenish the supply of oil only at rather long inter- 
vals. 

64. Electrical transmission.* — Power may be trans- 
mitted by converting mechanical energy into electrical 
energy by the dynamo, and after transmission to a dis- 
tance be converted into mechanical energy again by the 
electric motor. This form of transmission has many ad- 
vantages where the electric current is obtained from a 
large central station, and no doubt will be an important 
form of transmission to the farmer of the future, as 
electric systems are spread over the country for various 
purposes. 

*See Chapter XXIL, Part II. 



CHAPTER III 

MATERIALS AND THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 

A knowledg-e of the materials used in the construction 
of farm machinery and the strength of these materials 
will be helpful in the study of farm machinery. 

65. Wood. — At one time farm machinery was con- 
structed almost entirely with wooden framework, but 
owing to the increase in the cost of timber and the re- 
duction in the cost of iron and steel, it has been super- 
seded largely by the latter. Progress in the art of work- 
ing iron and steel, making it more desirable for many 
purposes, has also been a factor in bringing about the sub- 
stitution of iron and steel for wood. The woods chiefly 
used in the construction of farm machinery are hickory, 
oak, ash, maple, beech, poplar, and pine. It is not possi- 
ble to discuss to any length the properties of these woods. 
The wood used in the construction of machinery must be 
of the very best, for there is no use to which wood may 
be put where the service is more exacting or severe. 
Wood used in farm machinery must be heartwood and 
cut from matured trees. It should be dry and well sea- 
soned, and protected by paint or some other protective 
coating. Moisture causes wood to swell, and for this 
reason it is difficult to keep joints made of iron and wood 
tight, for the iron will not shrink with the wood. 

Excessive moisture in wood greatly reduces its 
strength, and wood subjected to alternate dryings and 
wettings is sure to check and crack. W^ood is especially 
well adapted to parts subject to shocks and vibrations, as 



44 FARM MACHINERY 

the pitman of a mower. Iron, and especially steel, when 
subjected to shocks tends to become crystallized. Tliis 
reduces its strength very much. 

66. Cast iron is used for the larger castings and most 
of the gears used in farm machines. At one time cast iron 
was used to a larger extent than at the present time, as 
it is being superseded by stronger but more expensive 
materials. Cast iron is of a crystalline structure and can- 
not be forged or have its shape changed in any other way 
than by the cutting away of certain portions with 
machine tools. Cast iron has a high carbon content, but 
the carbon is held much as a mechanical mixture rather 
than in a chemical combination. 

67. Gray iron is the name applied to the softer and 
tougher grade of cast iron, which is easily worked by 
tools ; and white iron to a very hard and brittle grade. 
White iron is used for pieces where there are no changes 
to be made after casting. 

68. Chilled iron. — When it is desired to have a very 
hard surface to a casting, as the face of a plow, the in- 
side of a wheel box, or other surfaces subjected to great 
wear, the iron is chilled when cast by having the molten 
iron come in contact with a portion of the mold made 
up of heavy iron, which rapidly absorbs the heat. Chilled 
iron is exceedingly hard. 

69. Malleable iron is cast iron which has been annealed 
and perhaps deprived of some of its carbon, changing it 
from a hard, brittle material to a soft, tough, and some- 
what dwctile metal. The process of decarbonation usually 
consists in packing castings with some decarbonizing 
agent, as oxide of iron, and baking in a furnace at a high 
temperature for some time. Malleable iron is much 
more expensive and more reliable than common cast 
iron. 



MATERIALS AND THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 



45 



70. Cast steel. — The term cast steel, as usually applied 
to the material used in the construction of t^ears, etc., is 
cast iron which has been deprived of some of its carbon 
before beini;" cast. 

71. Mild and Bessemer steel. — It is from this material 
that agricultural machinery is largely constructed. The 
hardness and stiffness of liessemer steel varies and de- 
pends largeh' upon the carbon content. Steel with a high 
per cent of carbon (0.17 per cent) is spoken of as a high- 
carbon steel, and steel with a low per cent (0.09 per cent) 
low-carbon steel. Bessemer steel is difficult to weld. 

72. Wrought iron. — Wrought iron is nearly ])ure iron, 
and is not as strong nor as stiff as mild steel, but can l)e 
welded with greater ease. 

73. Tool steel is a high-carbon steel made by carbon- 
izing wrought iron, and owing to the carbon content may 
be hardened by heating and suddenly cooling. Tool steel 
is used for all places where cutting edges are needed. 




FIG. 27— DRAWING ILLUSTRATING THE CONSTRUCTION OF SOFT-CENTER 

STEEL 

74. Soft-center steel, used in tillage machinery, is made 
up of a layer of soft steel with a layer of high-carbon 
steel on each side. The high-carbon steel may be made 
glass hard, yet the soft center will support the surface 
and prevent breakage. In making soft-center steel, a slab 
of high-carbon steel is welded to each side of a soft steel 



46 FARM MACHINERY 

slab and the whole rolled into plates (Fig. 27). A soft- 
center steel may be made by carbonizing a plate of mild 
steel by a process much the reverse of malleable making. 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 

All materials used in construction resist a stress or a 
force tending to change their form. Stresses act in three 
ways: (i) tension, tending to stretch; (2) compression, 
tending to shorten ; and (3) shear, tending to slide one 
portion over another. 

75. Tension. — Material subjected to a stress tending to 
stretch it, as a rope supporting a weight, is said to be 
under tension, and the stress to the square inch of the 
cross section required to break it is its tensile strength. 

76. Compression. — Material is under compression 
where the stress tends to crush it. The stress to the 
square inch required to crush a material is its compressive 
strength. 

77. Shear. — The shearing strength of a material is the 
resistance -to the square inch of cross section required to 
slide one portion of the material over the other. 

78. Transverse strength of materials. — When a beam 
is supported rigidly at one end and loaded at the other, 
as in Fig. 28, the material of the under side of the beam 
is under a compressive stress, and that of the upper part 
is subjected to a tensile stress. The property of materials 
to resist such stresses is termed their transverse strength. 

79. Maximum bending moment (B.M.) is a measure 
of the stress tending to produce rupture in a beam, and 
for a cantilever beam (i. e., one supported rigidly at one 
end. Fig. 28) is equal to the load times the length of the 
beam (W X L). The maximum bending moment de- 
pends upon the way a beam is loaded and supported ; 
thus with a simple beam loaded at the center and sup- 



MATERIALS AND THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 



47 



ported at both ends the bending moment is one-half the 
weight times the length. 

The maximum bending moment for the cantilever 
beam of Fig. 2.8 is at -the point where it is supported. If 
the beam be of a uniform cross section, it will rupture at 
this point before it will at any other. The bending 




OOMPcaessioM 




FIG. 28 — A CANTILEVER BEAM 



moment in the beam at hand grows less as the distance 
from the weight becomes less. As the bending moment 
becomes less, less material is needed to resist it, and 
hence a beam may be designed of such a section as to 
be of equal strength at all points, or it is what is called 
a beam of uniform strength. 

Much material may be saved by placing it where most 
needed. The location as well as the value of the maxi- 
mum bending moment depends upon the way the beam is 
loaded. 

80. Modulus of rupture (M.R.). — It is seldom that a 
material has a tensile strength equal to its strength to 



48 



FARM MACHINERY 



resist compression, so neither of these may be used for 
transverse stresses. The modulus of rupture is a measure 
of the transverse stresses necessary to produce rupture 





FIG. 29 — BEAMS OF UNIFORM STRENGTH 



FIG. 30 



and is determined experimentally. It is usually a quan- 
tity lying" between the compressive and tensile strengths 
of the material. 

81. Section modulus (S.M.) is the quantity represent- 
ing the ability of the beam to resist transverse stresses. 
It has been noticed by all that a plank will support a 
greater load on the edge than on the fiat. For a rectan- 
gular cross section, Fig. 30, if h =: depth in inches and 
b =: breadth in inches, the section modulus is 



6 ' 



that is, the strength of a rectangular beam is propor- 
tional to its breadth and to the square of its depth. 



MATERIALS AND THE STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 



49 



When a beam is loaded to its limit, bending moment = 
section modulus X modulus of rupture. 

This is a general ecjuation which applies to all beams. 

82. Factor of safety. — In the design of machinery it is 
customary to make the parts several times as strong as 
would be needed to carry normal loads. The number 
of times a piece is made stronger than necessary simply 
to carry the load is called the factor of safety, and in 
farm machine design it varies from 3 to 12. 

For a more complete discussion of this subject see any 
work on mechanics of materials. 

AVERAGE STRENGTH OF MATERIAL PER SQUARE INCH 



Material 



Hickory 

Oak 

White pine. . . 
Yellow pine. . , 

Cast iron 

Steel 

Wrought iron 



Tensile 
Strength 



18,000 
60.000 
50,000 



Compressive 
Strength 



9,000 

8,500 

5-400 

8,000 

80,000 

52,000 

48,000 



Modulus of 
Rupture 



15,000 
13,000 
7,900 
10,000 
45,000 
55,000 
48,000 



Values for the strength of timber were obtained from 
U. S. Forestry Circular No. 15. If the load or stress be 
continued for a long time the ultimate strength of timber 
will be only about one-half the above and for this reason 
much lower values are often given in architects' hand- 
books. 

For a more complete table see any engineers' hand- 
book.* 



*" Architects' and Builders' Pocket-Book." By 
"Materials of Construction." By J. B. Johnson. 



F. E. Kidder. 



50 FARM MACHINERY 

Problem : Find the safe load on an oak doubletree 4 
feet long, 4 inches wide, 2 inches thick. Factor of 
safety = 6. 

Let L = length in inches, IV = load in pounds, b = thickness, 
d = width in inches. 

Bending moment = y2lVL = ^^^^48 = 24W. 

Section modulus — -z — = —^ = 5-333- 

6 6 

Modulus of rupture for oak =13,000. 

„ ,. , Sect. Mod. X Mod. of Rupt. 

Bendmg moment = ^^ — : , ^ r .. 

Factor of Safety 

3^^^5-333X13,000 

J'F =481.5 pounds. (Ans.) 



CHAPTER IV 

TILLAGE MACHINERY 

83. Object of tillage. — Agricultural implements and 
machines used in preparing the soil for the seeding or 
growth of crops may be classed as tillage machinery. 
Tillage is the art which includes all of the operations 
and practices involved in fitting the soil for any crop, 
and the caring for it during its growth to maturity. 

Tillage is practiced to secure the largest returns from 
the soil in the way of crops. Its objects have been enu- 
merated in other works about as follows : 

(i) To produce in a field a uniform texture to such a 
depth as will render the most plant food available. 

(2) To add to the humus of the soil by covering be- 
neath the surface to such a depth as not to hinder further 
cultivation, green crops and other vegetable matter. 

(3) To destroy and prevent the growth of weeds, 
which would tend to rob the crops of food and moisture. 

(4) To modify the condition of the soil in such a way 
as to regulate the amount of moisture retained and the 
temperature of the soil. 

(5) To provide such a condition of the soil as to pre- 
vent excessive action of the rains by washing and the 
wind by drifting. 

At the present time practically all of the various opera- 
tions of tillage are carried on by aid of machinery, and 
'for this reason tillage machinery is of greatest impor- 
tance in modern farming operations. Modern tillage 
machinery has enabled the various objects as set forth to 



52 FARM MACHINERY 

be realized, thus not only increasing the yield an acre, but 
at the same time permitting a larger area to be tilled. 



THE PLOW 

84. The development of the plow. — The basic tillage operation 
is that of plowing, and for this reason the plow will be consid- 
ered first. Some of the oldest races have left sculptural records 
on their monuments describing their plows. From the time of 
these early records civilization and the plow have developed in 
an equal proportion. The first plow was simply a form of hoe 
made from a crooked stick of the proper shape to penetrate and 
loosen the soil as it was drawn along. The power to draw the 
plow was furnished by man, but later, as animals were trained 
for draft and burden, animal power was substituted and the plow 
was enlarged. 

The records of the ancient Egyptians illustrate such a plow. 
At an early time the point of the plow was shod with iron, for 
it is recorded that about 1,100 years B.C. the Israelites, who were 
not skilled in the working of iron, "went down to the Philistines 
to sharpen every man his share and his coulter." In the 
"Georgics," Virgil describes a Roman plow as being made 
of two pieces of wood meeting at an acute angle and plated 
with iron. 

During the middle ages there was but little improvement over 
the crude Roman plow as described by Virgil. The first people 
to improve the Roman model were the Dutch, who found that 
a more perfect plow was needed to do satisfactory work in their 
soil. The early Dutch plow seems to have most of the funda- 
mental ideas of the modern plow in that it was made with a 
curved moldboard, and was provided with a beam and two 
handles. The Dutch plow was imported into Yorkshire, Eng- 
land, as early as 1730, and served as a model for the early 
English plows. P. P. Howard was one whose name may be 
mentioned among those instrumental in the development of the 
early English plow. Howard established a factory, which re- 
mains to this day. 

James Small, of Scotland, was another who did much toward 
the improvement of the plow. Small's plow was designed to turn 
the furrows smoothly and to operate with little draft. 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 



53 



Robert Ransome, of Ipswich, England, in 1785 constructed 
a plow with the share of cast iron. In 1803 Ransome succeeded 
in chilling his plows, making them very hard and durable. The 
plows of Howard and Ransome were provided with a bridle 
or clevis for regulating the width and depth of the furrow. These 
plows were exhibited and won prizes at the London and the 
Paris expositions of 1851 and 1855. 

85. American development. — Before the Revolutionary War 
the plows used in America were much like the English and 
Scotch plows of that period. Conditions were not favorable to 
the development of new machinery or tools. The plow used 
during the later colonial period was made by the village car- 
penter and ironed by the village smith with strips of iron. The 
beam, standard, handles, and moldboard were made of wood, and 
only the cutting edge and strips for the moldboard were made 
of iron. 

Among those in America who first gave thought to the im- 
provement of the plow was Thomas Jefferson. While represent- 
ing the United States in France he wrote : "Oxen plow here 
with collars and harness. The awkward figure of the moldboard 
leads one to consider what should be its form." Later he 
specified the shape of the plow by stating: "The offices of the 
moldboard are to receive the sod after the share has cut it, to 
raise it gradually, and to reverse it. The fore end of it should 
be as wide as the furrow, and of a length suited to the construc- 
tion of the plow." 

Daniel Webster is another prominent American who, history 
relates, was interested in the development of the plow. He 
designed a very large and cumbersome plow for use upon his 




FIG. 31 — WEBSTER S PI/)W 



54 FARM MACHINERY 

farm at Marshfield, Massachusetts. It was over 12 feet long, 
turned a furrow 18 inches wide and 12 inches or more deep, 
and required several men and yoke of oxen to operate it. 

Charles Newbold, of Burlington, New Jersey, secured the first 
letters patent on a plow in 1797. Newbold's plow differed from 
others in that it was made almost entirely of iron. It is stated 




FIG. 32 — THE NEWBOLD PLOW 

that the farmers of the time rejected the plow upon the theory 
that so much iron drawn through the soil poisoned it, and not 
only retarded the growth of plants, but stimulated the growth 
of weeds. 

Jethro Wood gave the American plow its proper shape. The 
moldboard was given such a curvature as to turn the furrow 
evenly and to distribute the wear well. Although Wood's plow 
was a model for others which followed, he was unrewarded for 
his work, and finally died in want. William H. Seward, former 
Secretary of State, said of him: "No man has benefited his 
country pecuniarily more than Jethro Wood, and no man has 
been as inadequately rewarded." 

86. The steel plow. — 'As farming moved farther west the early 
settlers found a new problem in the tough sods of the prairie 
States. A special plow with a very long, sloping moldboard 
was found to be necessary in order to reduce friction and to turn 
the sod over smoothly. Owing to the firmness of the sod, it 
was found that curved rods might be substituted for the mold- 
board. Later when the sod became reduced it was found that 
the wooden and cast-iron plows used in the eastern portion of 
the country would not scour well. This difficulty led to the 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 



55 



use of steel in the making of plows. Steel, having the prop- 
erty of taking an excellent polish, permitted the sticky soils to 
pass over a moldboard made of it where the other materials 
failed. 

In about 1833 John Lane made a plow from steel cut from 
an old saw. Three strips of steel were used for the moldljoard 
and one for the share, all of which were fastened to a "shin" 
or frame of iron. John Lane secured in 1863 a patent on soft- 
center steel, which is used almost universally at the present time 
in the making of tillage tools. It was found that plates made 
of steel were brittle and warped badly during tempering. Weld- 
ing a plate of soft iron to a plate of steel was tried, and. although 
the iron supported the steel well when hardened, it warped very 
badly. The soft-center steel, which was formed by welding a 
heavy bar of iron between two bars of steel and rolling all 
down into plates, permitted the steel to be hardened without 
warping. It is very strong on account of the iron center, which 
will not become brittle. 

In 1837 John Deere, at Grand Detour, Illinois, built a steel 
plow from an old saw which was much similar to Lane's first 
plow. In 1847 Deere moved to Aloline, Illinois, and established 
a factory which still bears his name. William Parlin established 
a factory about the same time at Canton, which is also one of 
the largest in the country. 




FIG. $3 — THE MODERN STEEL WALKING PLOW WITH STEEL BE.'\M FOR 
STUBBLE OR OLD GROUND 



56 



FARM MACHINERY 



87. The sulky or wheel plow. — The development of the sulky 
or wheel plow has taken place only recently. F. S. Davenport 
invented the first successful sulky plow, i. e., one permitting the 
operator to ride. February 9, 1864. A rolling coulter and a three- 
horse evener were added to this by Robert Newton, of Jersey- 
ville, Illinois. But E. Goldswait had patented a fore carriage 
in 1851 and M. Furley a sulky plow with one base December 9, 
1856. Much credit for the early development of the sulky plow 
is due to Gilpin Moore, receiving a patent January 19, 1875. and 
W. L. Cassady, to whom a patent was granted May 2, 1876. 
Cassady first used a wheel for a landside. Too much space 
would be required to mention the many inventions and improve- 
ments which have been added to the sulky plow. 




FIG. 34 — AN UNDER VIEW OF THE MODERN STEEL PLOW, SHOWING ITS 
CONSTRUCTION 

88. The modern steel walking plow. — Fig. 34 shows 
the modern steel walking plow suitable for the prairie 
soils. The parts are numbered in the illustration as 
follows : 

1. Cutting edge or share. The point is the part of the 
share which penetrates the ground, and the heel or wing 
is the outside corner. A share welded to the landside is 
a bar share, while one that is independent is a slip share. 

2. Moldboard : The part by which the furrow is turned. 
The shin is the lower forward corner. 

3. Landside : The part receiving the side pressure pro- 
duced when the furrow is turned. A plate of steel covers 



TiLi..\(;i': maciiini:ky 



57 



the landside bar, furnishing- the wearing surface. When 
used for old ground, the plow is usually constructed with 
the bar welded to the frog, forming the foundation to 
which the other parts are attached. Landsides may be 
classed as high, medium, and low. 




FIG. 35 — STEEL PLOWSHARES. 
THE UPPER IS THE SLIP 
SH.\RE, AND THE LOWER THE 
BAR SHARE 




FIG. 36 — THE FORM OF THE 
HIGH, MEDIUM, AND LOW 
LANDSIDES FOR WALKING 
PLOWS 



4. Frog: The foundation to which are attached the 
share, moldboard, and landside. 

5. Brace. 

6. Beam : Alay be of wood or steel. The beam in a 
wooden-beam plow is joined to the plow by a beam 
standard. 

7. Clevis, or hitch for the adjustment of the plow. 

8. Handles : The handles are joined to the beam by 
braces. 

9. Coulter: Classified as rolling, fin, or knife coulters. 

89. Material. — While in the cheaper plows the mold- 
board and share may be of Bessemer or a grade of cast 
steel, in the best plows these and also the landside are 
usually made of soft-center steel or chilled iron. The 
beam is usually of Bessemer steel, while the frog may be 
of forged steel, malleable iron, or cast iron. 



58 FARM MACHINERY 



go. Reenforcements. — A patch of steel is usually welded 
upon the shin, the point of the share, and the heel of the 
landside. These parts are also made interchangeable so 
new parts may be substituted when worn. 

91. Size. — Walking- plows are made to cut furrows 



II 




FIG. 2>] — ROLLING CASTER AND ROLLING STATIONARY COULTERS, FIN 
HANGING, KNEE, DOUBLE ENDER, AND KNIFE CUTTERS OR COULTERS 

from 8 to 18 inches. A plow cutting a 14-inch furrow is 
considered a two-horse, and one cutting a 16- or an 18- 
inch furrow a three-horse plow. 

92. The modern sulky plow. — The name sulky plow is 
used for all wheel plows, but applies more particularly to 
single plows, while the name gang is given to double or 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 



59 



larger plows. Fig. 38 illustrates the typical sulky plow, 
and reference is made to its various parts by number: 

I. The nioldboard, share, frog or frame, and landside 
is called the plow bottom. Most sulky plows arc made 
with interchangeable bottoms, so it is possible to use the 
same carriage for various classes of work by using suit- 
able bottoms. 

2 and 3 are the rear and the front furrow wheels, re- 
spectively. These wheels are set at an angle with the 




FIG. 38 — THE MODERN FOOT-LIFT BF.AM-HITCH SULKY PLOW WITH STEEL 
PLOW BOTTOM 



vertical in order that they may carry to better advantage 
the side pressure of the plow due to turning the furrow- 
slice. 

4. The largest wheel traveling upon the unplowcd land 
is spoken of as the land wheel. 

5. The connections between the plow beam and the 
frame are called the bails. 



60 FARM MACHINERY 

6. A rod called the weed hook is provided to collect the 
tops of high vegetation. 

7. Practically all wheel plows are now provided with 
inclosed wheel boxes, which exclude all dirt and carry a 
large supply of grease. The inclosed wheel box has a 
collar which excludes the dirt at the axle end of the wheel 
box, and has the other end entirely inclosed with a cap. 
The grease is usually stored in the cap, which is made 
detachable from the hub. 

8. Wheel plows are now generally provided with a 
foot lift, b}^ which the plow is lifted out and forced into 
the ground. 

9. For plowdng in stony ground, it is necessar}^ to set 
the plow to float, so that in case a stone is struck the 
plow will be free to be thrown out of the ground without 
lifting the carriage, otherwise the plowman will be 
thrown from his seat and the plow damaged. 

10. The various parts of the sulky plow are usually 
attached to the frame, and this is an important part in 
the construction of the plow. Not all sulky plows, how- 
ever, are made with a frame. 

93. Types of sulky plows. — Sulky plows differ much in 
construction. The two-wheel plow is not used exten- 
sivel}^ at the present time because it does not carry the 
side pressure of the plow w^ell and does not turn a good 
square corner. One type of construction is that of a 
frame with wheels attached by means of brackets, making 
a carriage. To this carriage the plow proper is attached 
by bails. The hitch to frame plows may be to either the 
frame or to the plow beam. The former is known as a 
frame hitch and the latter as a beam hitch. There are 
good plows upon the market with a frame hitch, but the 
beam hitch plow^ seems to be preferred. 

A cheaper type of plow than the frame plow is the 



TIIJ.ACI-: ^jACHINKRV 



6i 



frameless, with the wheel braekets bolted directly to the 
])lo\v beam. Such plows will often do very satisfactory 
work, but are not quite so handy. Frame plows are gen- 
erally high-lift plows in that the plow may be lifted sev- 
eral inches abo\-e the plane of the carriage. A high-lift 
plow offers an advantage for cleaning and transporting 
from field to field. 

With the cheaper plows there is no attempt to guide 
or steer the plo\v other than let it follow the team. Such 
plows may be classed as tongueless. A tongueless plow 
may, howe\er, be provided with a hand lever either to 
shift the hitch or guide the front furrow wheel. Such a 
plow may be called a hand-guided plow, and the lever for 
guiding or adjusting is called the landing lever. 

There is still another type of frameless plow which is 
guided by the hitch. In the hitch-guided plow the front 




FIG. 39 — THE MODERN G.\NG TLOW 



62 



FARM MACHINERY 



furrow wheel or the front and rear furrow wheels are 
steered by a connection to the plow clevis. A tongue 
may be used with this type of plow to keep the team 
straight and to hold the plow back from off the horses' 
heels while being transported. 

The higher class sulky plows are guided with an ad- 
justable tongue, the tongue being connected to the front 
and rear furrow wheels. 

Sulky plows are usually fitted with a 14-, 16-, or 18-inch 
plow bottom, the 16-inch being the common size. 

94. Gang plows. — Nearly every sulky plow upon the 
market has its mate among the gang plows, which, as 
stated before, do not differ greatly from it, only in that 
they have two or more plow bottoms instead of one. 
Gang plows usually have a hand lever to assist the foot 
lift in raising and lowering the plow. The common sizes 
of gang-plow bottoms are 12- and 14-inch. 




FIG. 40 — TYPES OF PLOW BOTTOMS. NO. I IS THE STUBBLE OR OLD GROUND 

BOTTOM. NO. 7 IS THE BREAKER BOTTOM FOR TOUGH NATIVE 

SODS. NOS. 2, 3, 4, 5, AND 6 ARE INTERMEDIATE 

TYPES FOR GENERAL PURPOSE PLOWS 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 



63 



95. Types of plows' bottoms. — I'he plow bottom, as 
stated before, is the plow proper, detached from the beam 
or standard. Owing" to the varying conditions under 
which ground is to be plowed, a few general types, each 
with its own form of moldboard and share, have been 
established. These forms are illustrated in Fig. 40, and 
vary from No. 7, the breaker, with its long sloping share 
and moldboard, for natural sods, to No. i, the stubble 
plow with short, abrupt moldboard for old ground. The 




FIG. 41 — A STEEL WALKING PLOW WITH INTERCHANGEABLE MOLDBOARDS, 
BY WHICH IT MAY BE MADE INTO A BREAKER OR STUBBLE PLOW 

intermediate forms are given the name of turf and 
stubble, or general purpose, plows, being used for the sod 
of the cultivated grasses or for stubble ground. The 
breaker is suitable for the native sods of the Western 
prairies, as it turns the furrows very smoothly and covers 
the vegetation completely, that it may decay quickly. 
The abrupt curvature of the moldboard in the stubble 
bottom causes the furrow slice to be broken and crumbled 
in making the sharp turn, and thus has a more pulver- 
izing action and is designed for old ground. The general 
purpose plow is designed for the lighter sods, such as 
those of the tame grasses. 



64 



FARM MACHINERY 



Some manufacturers make plows with interchang'eable 
moklboards, and sulky plows are usually built with inter- 
changeable bottoms, so the plow or carriage may be used 
for a variety of soils. 

96. The jointer. — The jointer is used in soils inclined 
to be soddy. It enables the plow to do cleaner work and 
cover all vegetation, throwing a ribbon-like strip of. turf 
into the furrow. It will often render excellent service 




FIG. 42 — TYPES OF JOINTERS. THE TWO AT THE LEFT ARE MADE OF 

steel; THE ONE AT THE RIGHT IS A CHILLED IRON JOINTER 

WITH AN ADJUSTABLE SHANK 

where sod ground is to be plowed deep and left in shape 
for immediate pulverizing to fit it for crops. It will cut 
out a section of the sod, turning it into the bottom of the 
furrow, where it will be completely covered, and at the 
same time leave the upper edge of the furrow slice com- 
posed only of comparatively loose earth. By cutting out 
the corner of the furrow slice, the furrows will be com- 
pletely inverted, leaving the surface smooth. If the fur- 
row slice is perfectly rectangular, the furrows are inclined 
to pile or lap over each other. 



TILLAGE MAClItNF.RY 



65 



97. The chilled plow. — In many places, especially in 
the eastern United States, many of the plows used are of 
chilled cast iron. A chilled plow with a reversible point 




FIG. 43 — A MODERN CHILLED WALKING PLOW WITH JOINTER .'XND GAUGE 

WHEEL 



is shown in Fig. -43. Chilled plows are very hard, but 
will not scour in all soils. The share can only be ground 
to an edge when dull, or it may be replaced at a small 
cost. 

98. The hillside plow. — In localities too sloping to 
throw the furrow uphill, hillside or reversible plows are 




FIG. 44 — A REVERSIBLE OR HILLSIDE PLOW WITH KNIFE COULTER 

used. A plow which may be made a right- or left-hand 
plow by turning it under on a hinge to the standard is 
shown in Fig. 44. In irrigated districts where dead fur- 



66 



FARM MACHINERY 



rows interfere with the carrying of water upon the land, 
reversible plows are used. These are of many forms, but 
the type will not be further discussed. 

99, The subsoil plow. — Where it is desirable to loosen 
the ground to a greater depth than can be done with a 
surface plow, the subsoil plow is used. It is used with 




FIG. 45 — A SUBSOIL PLOW FOR LOOSENING THE SOIL IN THE BOTTOM OF 
THE FURROW MADE BY THE COMMON PLOW 



the regular plow, following in the furrow made by it. 
Opinions in regard to the value of this plow dififer, but 
the subject will not be discussed here. 

100. The disk plow. — The disk plow is the result of an 
efifort on the part of inventors to reduce the draft due to 
the sliding friction upon the moldboard. Figs. 46 and 47 
show the modern disk plow made for horse and engine 
power, respectively. A plow consisting of three disks 
cutting very narrow strips was about the first one pat- 
ented, M. A. and I. N. Cravath, of Bloomington, Illinois, 
being its inventors. Under certain conditions, it is said, 
this plow did very satisfactory work, but the side 
pressure was not sufficiently provided for. M. F. Han- 
cock succeeded in introducing the disk plow into localities 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 



67 



where conditions were well adapted to its use, and be- 
came prominent as a promoter of the disk plow. 




FIG. 46 — A DISK G.\NG PLOW TO UE Ol'ER.MED BY HORSE POWER 



The draft of the disk plow is often heavier in propor- 
tion to the amount of work done, and the plow itself is 




FIG. 47 — AN ENGINE DISK GANG PLOW TURNING 8-, I0-, OR 12-INCH 

FURROWS 



68 FARM MACHINERY 

more clumsy than the moldboard plow; sp where the 
latter will do good work there is no advantage in using 
the former. In sticky soils, however, or in very hard 
ground, where it is impossible to use the moldboard plow, 
the disk will often be found to do good work, and in the 
latter case with much less draft. The moldboard plow 
is recommended by the manufacturers of both plows 
where it will do good work. 

Disk plows have been made in the walking style within 
the past few years, but have proved rather unsatisfactory. 
A few of this style are suitable for hillside and irriga- 
tion plows, being made reversible. 

loi. The steam plow. — Where steam power is used for 
other purposes, or where farming is carried on exten- 
sively, steam may be used at a saving over horse power 
in plowing. This has been attempted for many years, but 
it has only recently become very successful, and even 
now the steam plow is used onl}^ on large farms and on 
level land. If the soil is not firm, the great weight causes 
the traction wheels of the engine to sink into the ground 
until the plow cannot be pulled. 

The modern steam plow, direct connected, steered from 
the rear, and having a steam lift, is a very successful 
machine. Its advantages are its capacity and unlimited 
power for deep plowing. The cost of plowing with a 
steam plow varies with the cost of fuel and other condi- 
tions, but it should be from 75 cents to $1.50 an acre. 
Outfits capable of plowing and at the same time pre- 
paring the seed bed and seeding 40 to 50 acres in a day 
are now in use. 

A ty])e of steam plow which has been successful in 
Europe is operated by a system of cables. The plow is 
drawn back and forth across the field by means of the 
cable, the engine being placed at one end of the field. 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 



69 



The steam plow may, in some cases, in certain soils, 
be the means of producing" an increase of yield of crops, 
by plowing to a greater depth than could be done by 
horse power. 

102. The set of walking plows. — The original set of a 
plow, or the proper adjustment of its point, share, and 
beam, is given by the maker. Each time when the plow 
is sharpened the smith is depended upon to return this 
set to the plow. 

103. Suction. — The suction of a plow is usually meas- 
ured as the width of the opening between the landside 
and a straight edge laid upon it when the plow is bottom 
side up. It is usually about yi inch, but may vary slightly 




FIG. 48 — THE SUCTION OF WALKING PLOWS SOMEWHAT EXAGGERATED 



without detriment to the plow. It may also be described 
as the amount the point is turned down to secure pene- 
tration. 

The point of the share is also turned slightly outward, 
which makes the line of the landside somewhat concave. 
The beam of a three-horse plow is in a line with the land- 
side, but in a two-horse plow it is placed a little to the 
furrow side of the line of the landside, usually about 3 
inches, in order that the hitch may be more directly 
behind the team. For ordinary plows tbe point of the 
beam stands 14 inches high, but it is higher for hard soils. 
Some bearing must be given at the heel of the share in 
walking" plows, to carry the downward pressure of the 



70 



FARM MACHINERY 



furrow. One inch width of bearing surface for 12- and 14- 
inch plows and 1^4 inches for 16-inch plows is the average 
width of this bearing, more being needed for soft, mellow 
soils than for firm soils. This fact necessitates a change 
in the plow in changing from hard to mellow soils, as a 
share set for a hard soil will swing to one side or work 
poorly in the mellow soil. A handy device called a heel 
plate is sometimes used to vary the width of surface at 
the heel. 

104. The set of sulky plows. — With the sulky plow, 
when the share lies on a flat surface, the distance from 
the heel of the landside to the surface is called the suction. 



1 




FIG. 49 — THE BEARING SUkKACt kt.<JL IKED AT THE WING OF THE SHARE 



In sulky and gang plows this is usually 3^ inch. The 
entire downward pressure or suction should be carried 
upon the wheels or carriage, which, with their well lubri- 
cated bearings, will reduce the draft and recpiire no bear- 
ing surface at the wing of the share. In order to reduce 
the friction by removing the pressure from the landside, 
the rear furrow wheel is set outside the line of the land- 
side, usually about 1% inches. 

105. Set of coulter. — The rolling coulter should be set 
to clear the shin of the plow by about ^ inch, and should 
cut j/4 inch or }i inch outside the shin. It is said that if 



TILLAGE MACHINLRY "Jl 

the coulter is made to cut i inch or more outside the 
landside, thus increasing the load upon the plow, it can 
be made to scour when giving difficulty in this respect. 
When plowing among roots the plow is enabled to run 
over rather than underneath large roots by inclining the 
knife coulter backward with its point l)elow the point of 
the plow; otherwise the knife coulter must be set with 
the lower point well ahead. 

io6. Scouring. — Some soils are of such a nature that 
a plow can be made to scour only with difficulty. This 
is true especially of soils in the Middle West. In -other 
localities plows give little trouble in this respect. W^hen 
the plow is at fault, poor scouring may be due ( i) to poor 
temper. In this case the share and moldboard are not 
hard enough to take a good polish, and hence will not 
scour well. These parts should be so hard that they can 
barely be scratched with a file. (2) To poor grinding. 
Sometimes hollows have been ground into the moldboard, 
over which the furrow slice presses so lightly that not 
enough pressure is given to cause the spot to scour. This 
may readily be tested by carrying the tips of the fingers up 
the plow (piickly, from the edge of the share in the direc- 
tion the soil moves. (3) I'o a poor fitting, i. e., where the 
joint between the share and moldboard is not smooth. 
A remedy for this is procured by shimmering the share 
up or down with small pieces of pasteboard. (4) To the 
edge of the share not being level, making a low spot back 
of the edge. This is usually caused by a warped share. 
(5) To poor setting. The plow must be set as previously 
described. 

107. Sharpening steel shares. — It is recommended by 
some manufacturers that until necessary only the ex- 
treme point of a share be heated to put into form, the 
edge being sharpened by grinding ; but when necessary 



72 FARM MACHINERY 

to heat and draw to an edge by hammering, they recom- 
mend the following" procedure : 

The point should be heated to a low cherry red. If the 
heat is too intense, the quality of the steel will be injured. 
Only as much should be heated at once as can be ham- 
mered. The body of the share must be kept cool and 
strong so the fitting edges may not be disturbed. After 
this, the entire cutting" edge should be cold hammered. 
The share should then be set on a level platform, leaving 
1/16 inch under the middle piece to give proper suction 
or pitch. The edge must touch all the way along, and 
the proper bearing" must be given at the wing. 

108. Hardening plowshares. — A hardened share will 
retain its cutting edge much longer than a soft share. It 
is highly advisable, after each time the edge is drawn out 
by heating and hammering, that the share be hardened. 
Some soils require hardened steel shares in order that 
they may retain their scouring qualities. Several reliable 
manufacturers give directions for sharpening and harden- 
ing shares made of soft-center steel about as follows : 
Sharpening : The whole point should be heated to a very low 
red heat, then the face of the share must be turned down- 
ward with the heel over the fire and the point about 
2 inches higher than the heel. In this way the whole 
length of the share will be heated almost in one heat, 
as the fire will be drawui along from the heel toward the 
point. An uneven heat will warp and crack the share. 
When a moderate heat has been reached it must be re- 
moved, and it will be noticed if the share is sprung up 
along the edge. This must be set right, and the following 
methods may be used to harden : 

First. The edge must be made liard and springy by 
cold hammering ; then the share is to be heated as de- 
scribed to a low cherry red. It should be let into the 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 73 

water (holding it bottom side up) far enough to cool the 
edge, then taking it out, and the color should be watched 
as the heat returns to the edge. ^Vhen a dark straw or 
mottled purple reaches the edge, the. entire share may be 
cooled. 

Second. If a supply of oil is at hand, the share may 
be tempered with less risk of breakage. When oil is used 
(linseed or lard oil will answer) the share is to be heated 
as before to a low cherry heat, then lowered into the oil 
till entirely cool. After this it must be held over the fire 
till the temper is sui^ciently drawn, which will be indi- 
cated by the oil on the thin part of the share taking fire. 
It may finally be cooled by immersion in cold water. 

log. Draft of plows. — The nature of soils, growth of 
roots, and amount of moisture present influence the draft 
of plows. The shape of the moldboard also affects the 
draft, the more abrupt curvature producing a more pul- 
verizing action upon the furrow slice, and requiring more 
work. 

Professor J. \\". Sanborn, of ]vIissouri, made tests to 
determine the reduction of draft due to the use of a 
coulter, the results of w hich are as here given. The tests 
were made with a plow similar to the sod or breaking 
plow, and in clover sod two years old, with about as 
much moisture present as would permit working the soil 
advantageously. The results were as follows : 



Size ' 


of Furrow 


Total 
Draft 


Draft 
per Sq. 111. 


5-575 ' 
5325' 


'X 

'X 


1508" 

14-5" 


2Q6.25 

34375 


3524 

4-453 



Sod plow with wheel coulter. 
" " without 

Difference 47-50 .929 



The coulter resulted in better work and diminished 
the draft 20.86 per cent. A later series of observations 



74 FARM MACHINERY 

was made on clover sod, the plow being provided with a 

wheel coulter, the soil being drier than before. The fol- 
lowing results were obtained : 

Total Draft 

Size of Furrow Draft per Sq. In. 

Clover sod without coulter. .. . 6.47" X 11.61" 71435 10.80 

" with " .... 6.413" X 12.47" 664.82 8.616 



Difference. . .' 49-53 2.184 

In these tests the coulter reduced the draft 25.34 per 
cent. 

It is stated in the report of the trials of plows at Utica 
that the total draft of a plow is divided as follows : 35 per 
cent is used in overcoming the friction between the iin- 
plement and the soil, 55 per cent in cutting the furrow 
slice, and 10 per cent in turning it. The accuracy of these 
tests has been doubted by some, but the tests seem to 
have been conducted with care, and they show the neces- 
sity of keeping a sharp cutting edge. It is desirable that 
data of this kind be obtained by tests made with 
modern plows. 

no. Draft of sulky plows. — It is often claimed that the 
draft of sulky plows is less than that of walking plows, 
owing to the friction of the sole and landside being trans- 
ferred to the well-oiled bearings of the carriage. But 
records show that there is no gain unless the weight of 
the driver and the frame is deducted. But there is an 
evident advantage in riding plows, even if the draft is 
slightly greater on the team with the plowman riding 
rather than walking, and the plow being handled with 
equal facility. Though little information is at hand on 
the subject, what there is seems to indicate that there is 
only a slight difference in the draft of walking and riding 
plows, in proportion to the amount of work done. 

III. The selection of a walking plow. — The best in 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 75 

quality of material and workmanship is (lesir.-il)lc when 
selecting a walking plow. It may be difficult to judge of 
the material, but the workmanship can be easily deter- 
mined. Beginning with the frog, the plow should be 
well made and put together, and at this point a vast dif- 
ference in plows may be detected. The work to be done 
should determine the kind of plow to be selected, and 
the type of mold-board must be suited to the soil to be 
turned. While steel-beamed plows are used to better 
advantage in plowing among trash, plows with wooden 
beams have an advantage in being lighter and less likely 
to be sprung. A wooden-beam plow, striking a rock or 
root, may have the beam broken, while with a steel-beam 
plow it may be distorted. A right-hand plow is one 
that turns the furrow to the right, and a left-hand plow 
is one turning the furrow to the left. The custom estab- 
lished in the locality where it is to be used should deter- 
mine the one to select, as one has no advantage over 
the other. 

112. The selection of a sulky plow, — As is the case with 
the walking plow, the quality of a sulky plow will be 
indicated largely by its construction and workmanship, 
although its selection requires more care than that of a 
walking plow. To be brief, a well-made plow and one 
easily operated as regards foot lifts and levers should be 
chosen. It should turn a scjuare corner in either direc- 
tion, and all parts subject to wear should either be adjust- 
able or made of generous dimensions. This applies espe- 
cially to bail boxes on bail plows. 

113. Adjusting the walking plow. — A few points re- 
garding the operation of plows should be mentioned. A 
walking plow, if working properly, should need very little 
attention from the plowman, only requiring him to steady 
it with the handles. If it re(|uires a steady pull to either 



76 FARM MACHINERY 

side, either the hitch or the clevis should be adjusted or 
the amount of bearing given at the heel or wing is 
too great or too small. It should be seen that the point 
is well turned down and never allowed to become round- 
ing. If it becomes much worn, new metal must be added. 
It is desirable to maintain the original amount of suction 
and the distance from point of share to point of beam ; 
in fact, the entire form of the plow should be maintained 
as nearly as possible in its original condition, providing it 
worked satisfactorily when new. 

As given in former data, a large proportion of the draft 
is due to the cutting of the furrow. This shows the im- 
portance of keeping the cutting edge sharp. It has also 
been stated that if after being sharpened the share is 
hardened, the cutting edge will be retained longer. 

114, Adjusting the sulky plow. — The land wheel of a 
three-wheel sulky or gang plow should travel directly to 
the front, but often, owing to bad adjustment, it is re- 
quired to slip occasionally, because it is traveling at an 
angle with the direction of the plow's motion. The rear 
furrow wheel is usually given a small ''lead" from the 
land, i. e., it is turned out a little from the unplowed land. 
This wheel should also be set an inch or so outside of 
the line of the landside, in order to remove the friction 
from this part as much as possible. The front furrow 
wheel is given "lead" from the land with the single plow, 
and toward the land when the team is hitched abreast on 
gangs. This difference in the latter case is because the 
line of draft is outside the line of work, and the plow is 
made to travel directly to the front by the front furrow 
wheel being turned in. 

In any wheel plow the load should be carried as much 
as possible on the wheels in order to reduce the draft. 
There should be a reduction in draft when the entire load, 



TILLAGE MACHINERY yj 

due to lifting and turning the furrow slice, is carried upon 
the carriage wlieels with the well-lubricated bearings, 
rather than upon the sole and landside of the plow, where 
all is sliding friction. 

Care should be taken in hitching that the horses are not 
too much crowded or spread too much, as in either case 
good work cannot be done. When spread too much the 
team cannot travel directly to the front so well, and the 
line of draft is too far out to do good work. When 
crowded, the horses are ^vorking at a disadvantage, and 
the heat in warm weather will atfect them more. When 
not in use, the polished surface of a plow should be pro- 
tected from rust by a coat of heavy grease or "axle 
grease," and, like all other implements, it should be 
protected from the weather. 



CHAPTER V 

TILLAGE MACHINERY (Continued) 

115. The smoothing harrow. — After plowing the 
ground, it is necessary to pulverize the soil very finely 
and to smooth it. The harrow is the implement used for 
this purpose, and it may be used also to cover seeds, to 
form a dust mulch for retaining moisture, and to kill 
weeds when they are beginning to grow. 

116. Development. — Formerly the branch of a tree of 
a size to suit the power, whether man or animal, was used 
as a harrow. The limb chosen had small branches ex- 
tending" usually all to one side or the other, so as to lie 
flat when in use. Even until quite recently the brush 
harrow has been in use for covering seeds. An early type 
of harrow consisted of a forked limb with spikes in each 
arm, to which a cross arm was added later. This form 
was known as the "A" harrow. Until late in the six- 
teenth century a type of harrow devised by the Romans 
was the standard. This harrow was square or oblong, 
having cross bars with many teeth in them. 

117. Classification. — Harrows may be classified as fol- 
lows: 

I. Smoothing harrows. 

Kinds of teeth Straight fixed tooth ; 

Square-and-round tooth ; 

Cultivator tooth. 
Kinds of frame Wood frame ; 

Pipe frame ; 

Channel or U bar frame. 
Adjustment of teeth . . Fixed tooth ; 

Adjustable tooth; 

Lever harrows. 



TILLAGE iMACIIINERY 



79 



2. Spring-tooth harrows. 

3. Curved knife-tooth harrows or pulverizers. 

4. Disk harrows: Full di.sk; cutaway; spading; orchard. 

It will not be possible to illustrate all these forms of 
harrows. The common smoothing harrow is not shown, 




FIG. 50 — A WOOD-BAR LEVER SMOOTHING HARROW. A CHEAPER HARROW 
IS MADE WITH FIXED TEETH AND A WOODEN FRAME 

but a lever harrow with wooden bars is shown in Fig. 50. 
Wooden-frame harrows can be used to better advantag-e 
in trashy ground when they are provided with a tooth 
fastener so arranged that the teeth will slope backward 




FIG. 51 — A CURVED KNIFE-TOOTU HARROW OR PULVERIZER 



8o 



FARM MACHINERY 



when drawn from one end. Such teeth may be spoken of 
as adjustable. A curved knife-tooth harrow, sometimes 
spoken of as a pulverizer, is illustrated in Fig. 51. This 




FIG. 52 — A RIDING WEEUER 

crushes clods and brings the soil into uniform structure 
very satisfactorily. The weeder has rather long teeth 
and is an excellent implement for destroying small weeds, 
and also to form a dust mulch and a fine tilth. The culti- 




FIG. S3 — A SPRING-TOOTH LEVER HARROW 

vator tooth has the point flattened, and is curved so as 
to penetrate the ground more readily. Often it is aided 
in passing over obstacles by being held in place with a 
spring. 



TII.T.AGR MACIIIXr.RV 8l 

ii8. The spring-tooth harrow. — This harrow is illus- 
trated in Fig. 53. When the teeth are caught on any oh- 
stacle they spring back and are released, this fact making 
it a very useful implement for stony ground. It is also 
an excellent pulverizer. 

iig. The selection of a tooth harrow. — It is a difficult 
matter to give explicit directions for selecting a harrow. 
The work to be done is the first thing to be considered, 
as a smoothing harrow, for instance, performs a very 
different ofBce from a pulverizer or a weeder. Next the 
workmanship used in its manufacture and construction 
should be well examined. At all points where there will 
be much wear it should be well reenforced, and should 
have the general appearance of being a well-made tool. 
The connection between the sections of the evener espe- 
.cially should be properly reenforced, as the work of a sin- 
gle season has been known to wear out these connections. 
The tooth fastener is another important part in a tooth 
harrow which demands the attention of the purchaser. 
The tooth should have a head so that it will not drop out 
and be lost in case the fastener should become loosened. 
The square tooth is desirable, though spike teeth are 
made either from round or square stock. The regular 
sizes are ^ inch and ->^ inch, the ^/s, inch size being suit- 
able for heavier work. The number of teeth to the foot 
of the harrow may vary from five to eight, and this num- 
ber as well as their size should correspond to the kind of 
work and conditions under which the harrow is to be 
used. Originally wooden harrow frames were the only 
kind used, but now they are generally made of steel pipe, 
angle and channel bars. The later styles of harrow are 
much more durable, and, the same amount of material 
being used, there is little choice between the styles of 
steel harrows. Lever harrows have an advantage in that 



82 



FARM MACHINERY 



the angle of the tooth may be adjusted, making the im- 
plement capable of performing a variety of work. Some 
levers are more easily operated than others. This lever 
adjustment facilitates transportation. Some harrows are 
so constructed that the sections may fold upon each other 
for easy transportation. Harrows in which the ends of 
the tooth bars are protected are suited for orchard work, 
as the bars will not catch and bark the trees. 




FIG. 54 — A STEEL LEVER HARROW WITH A RIDING ATTACHMENT OR HAR- 
ROW CART. THIS HARROW HAS THE TOOTH BARS MADE OF 
STEEL CHANNEL BARS WITH PROTECTED ENDS 



120. The harrow cart. — In order that the operator may 
ride, this device is sometimes attached behind the harrow. 
The attachment is made to the eveners by angle bars, and 
the wheels are made to caster so that in turning it will 
follow the harrow. It is very laborious to walk behind 
the harrow on plowed ground, and the harrow cart re- 
moves this difficulty ; at the same time the rider has easy 
control of the team and is above the dust. The extra 
draft should be very little, but the wheels should have 
wide tires to prevent them from cutting into the soft 
ground. 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 



83 



121. The disk harrow. — This tool is perhaps the best 
ada])tccl for pulveri/.inj:^ and loosening the ground of any 
yet devised. On account of its rolling action, it can l)e 
used for a great variety of conditions. It does excellent 
service in reducing plowed ground which is inclined to 
be soddy, and may even be used to prepare hard and dry 
soils for plowing. It may also be used to advantage in 
destroying weeds after they have grow^n beyond the con- 
trol of the smoothing harrow. In fact, the disk harrow 
should be in use on every farm. 




FIG. 55 — A TWO-LEVER DISK HARROW. SCRAPERS OPERATED BY THE FEET 



122. The full-bladed disk harrow. — This class of har- 
row may be used to good advantage as a pulverizer, and 
the blades are easily sharpened when dull, either by 
grinding or turning to an edge. The diameter of the disks 
may vary from 12 to 20 inches. For general purposes, 
the medium-sized, or 14- or 16-inch, disk is the size best 
adapted, although the larger sizes may have slightly less 
draft. The penetration of the disk blades into the ground 



84 



FARM MACHINERY 



is determined by (i) the line of draft, (2) the angle of 
gangs, (3) the curvature of the disk blades, (4) the 
weight of the harrow, and (5) the sharpness of the 
blades. 

123. The cutaway or cut-out disk harrow. — As may be 
judged from the name, portions of the periphery of the 
blade of this harrow are notched out, allowing the re- 
maining portions to penetrate the ground to greater 






FIG. 56 — A SINGLE-LEVER CUTAWAY DISK HARROW 



depth. The entire surface, however, is not so thoroughly 
pulverized as with the full-bladed disk. It has a dis- 
advantage of being hard to sharpen. The cutaway har- 
row seems to be especially adapted to work among stones 
and may be used to cultivate hay land. 

124. Spading harrow. — This type of harrow has blades 
curving at the ends, forming a sort of sprocket wheel, 
with the cutting edges out. Tt works much like a cut- 
away. To sharpen it the blades must be separated and 



TILLAGE MACIllNLRY 



85 



drawn out much as a plow is sharpened. A special form 
of spading harrow with sharp spikes is used in cultivating 




FIG. 57 — A SPADING HARROW 



alfalfa, and is given the name of "alfalfa harrow." The 
orchard disk differs from the common disk only in that 
it has an extension frame, so that it may be used to 




FIG. 58 — AN ORCHARD DISK HARROW WITH WIDE FRAME TO WORK UNDER 
TREES. THE GANGS MAY BE SET TO THROW IN OR OUT 



cultivate rows of small plants as well as to reach under 
trees and cultivate the soil under the branches. The disk 



86 FARM MACHINERY 

gangs often may be set to throw in or out from the center, 
to suit the nature of the work. 

Usually the first parts of the disk harrow to wear out 
are the bearings. There are many styles of ball and 
chilled iron bearings in the market now, but those of hard 
wood seem to be as satisfactory as any, since they may 
be easily replaced. The construction of the bearings 
should be such as to exclude all dirt. A reliable means of 
oiling should be provided, and it is well to have an oil 
pipe to the bearings which extends above the weight pans 
or frame. 

The scrapers or cleaners to keep the disks clean are 
another important feature of the disk harrow. These 
may be made stationary or so arranged as to be operated 
by the feet of the driver or otherwise when needed. 
They are not needed when working in dry soil, and when 
stationary they cause undue friction. A scraper that is 
made to oscillate by horse power over the face of the 
disk blades, and clean them automatically once in six 
revolutions, is sometimes used. When not needed it may 
be thrown out of gear. 

Disk-harrows with bumpers to carry the end thrust of 
the sections are usually made with one lever in order 
that the gangs or sections may be adjusted and the bump- 
ers kept squarely together. A scheme to surmount this 
difficulty is to adjust the outer end of the gangs only. A 
two-lever disk harrow ofifers several advantages by ad- 
justing the gangs at different angles for side hill work 
and for double disking by lapping one-half each time. 
I'he soil when disked once is not as firm as the undisked 
ground, and if lapping one-half, it may be necessary to 
set the gangs at different angles in order to cause the 
harrow to follow the team well. 

It is advisable to have good clearance between stand- 



TILLAGE MACIIINLRY 87 

ards and the disks and between the weis^ht boxes and the 
disks. Good clearance will prevent clog-^ing in wet and 
trashy ground. In order to secure flexibility of the gangs 
it is almost essential to have spring pressure to keep the 
inside ends of the gangs down. There is a natural tend- 
ency for the gangs to raise at the center. If three horses 
are to be used, it is advisable to have a stub tongue and 
an offset pole. Patent three-horse eveners to remove side 
draft with the pole set in the center are not to be advised. 
A liberal amount of material must 1)e used in the con- 
struction as well as good workmanship — for instance, a 
heavy gang bolt with a lock nut. A scpiare gang bolt is 
considered better than a round one. 

125. Tongueless disk harrows are now made with a 
truck under a stub-tongue. These harrows, no doubt, 
make the work lighter for the team, but sacrifice a certain 
amount of control in handling the harrow. This feature 
is of more importance under certain conditions than 
others. A tongue truck is also used and is a very satis- 
factory addition to the harrow^ 

126. Plow-cut disk harrows, — Harrows have been con- 
structed for several years with disks which have a raised 
or bulging center, the idea being that the dirt in being 
forced up over the raised center is turned over much like 
it would be from the moldboard of a plow. It is claimed 
by the manufacturer that this shape enables the harrow 
to cover the small trash better, that it leaves the ground 
leveler, and the harrow has better penetration on account 
of the shape of the disk blades. All these claims are de- 
nied by other manufacturers. 

THE ROLLER AND FLANKER 

127. The land roller is a very efficient tool for working 
up a fine tilth and for making the ground smooth and 



»5 FARM MACHINERY 

firm. The first rollers were constructed out of suit- 
able logs and were drawn by yokes engaging pins in 
the ends of the rollers. It was soon found that if a 
log of any width was used, it would not work well 
on uneven ground, and it was clumsy to turn. Rollers 
made in two or three sections were then introduced, 
which were found in a great measure to overcome these 
difficulties. If the soil moisture is to be conserved, 
the roller should be followed by a smoothing harrow, 




FIG. 59 — A SMOOTH IRON ROLLER 



as the former smooths and packs the ground, permitting 
the escape of the capillary water into the air. The har- 
row will roughen the surface, thereby decreasing the 
wind velocity, and will also put a dust mulch over the 
surface. The ground will be in much better condition 
for a mower or other machine after the roller has passed 
over it. 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 



89 



Certain advantages over the plain smooth rollers are 
claimed for the corrugated or tubular rollers, several 
styles of which have been invented. They are said to 




FIG. UO— A TUBULAR ROLLER 



crush the clods better, and they do not leave a smooth 
surface. FiQs. 60 and 61 illustrate two rollers of this 




FIG. 61 — A FLEXIBLE RuLLKK AND CLOG CRUSHER OK SPECIAL DESIGN 

type. H. \V. Campbell invented a tool of this nature 
called the subsurface packer, for packing the ground be- 
neath the surface. This tool (illustrated in Fig. 62) con- 
sists of a series of wheels with wedge-shaped tread. 



90 



FARM MACHINERY 



Campbell advocates a method of surface cultivation to 
conserve the moisture in semi-arid regions. The inter- 
tillage of wheat and other small grains is included in this 
system. An authority states that rollers should be at 
least 2 feet in diameter, and should not weigh more than 




FIG. 62 — THE SUBSURFACE PACKER 

100 pounds to the foot of width. If intelligently used, 

the roller is no doubt a valuable implement to the average 

farm. 

128. The common planker, although a home-made tool, 

is a very valuable imple- 
ment for crushing clods 
and smoothing the sur- 
face. It is not inclined to 
push surface clods into 
the soil like the roller, 
but will catch them and 
pulverize them. The 
planker does not adapt 

itself well to any unevenness of the surface and does not 

pack the soil like the roller. 






FIG. 63 — THE COMMON PLANKER, A 
SERVICEABLE TOOL USUALLY 
MADE ON THE FARM 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 9I 



THE CULTIVATOR 

129. Development.- — The modern cultivator, which is a very- 
efficient aid to the cultivation of growing plants, has developed 
under the addition of animal power from a kind of crude hoe 
used in the early days. The original single shovel was changed 
for the double shovel, this in turn was supplanted by the 
straddle-row cultivator, and even the latter was increased in 
size until in some cases the modern cultivator will take two 
rows at a time. A horse hoe and drill was invented l)y Jethro 
Tull early in the eighteenth century, but this was never a popular 
machine. Until i860 country blacksmiths generally made the 
double shovels used by farmers. A patent was granted to 
George Esterly, April 22. 1856, on a straddle-row cultivator for 
two horses, and his was the first of the line of implements in 
the manufacture of which millions are now invested. 

130. Classification of cultivators. 

Single- and double-shovel cultivators. 
One-horse cultivators. 

Five- and nine-tooth cultivators. 
Straddle-row cultivators. 
Walking — 
Tongue, 
Tongueless. 
Riding. 
Combined. 
Smgle-row. 
Double-row. 
Surface cultivators. 

131. Single- and double-shovel cultivators, although 
used xery extensively at one time, have their use con- 
fined almost entirely to garden and cotton culture. 

132. The one-horse cultivator is used largely in gar- 
dening and for cultixating corn too high to be cultivated 
with the straddle-row cultivator. It may be provided 
with almost any number of teeth from 5 to 14. The teeth 
may vary from the harrow tooth designed for producing 
a very fine tilth, to the wide reversible shovels used on 



92 



FARM MACHINERY 



the five-tooth cultivators. Also a spring tooth may be 
used similar to those used on the spring-tooth harrow. 

133. Features of cultivators, with suggestions in regard 
to selection. — The gangs (sometimes called rigs) are the 
beams, shanks, and shovels. Usually several styles of 
gangs may be fitted to each cultivator. The shovels may 
vary in number from four to eight for a pair of gangs. 
The larger number is to be preferred for producing the 




FIG. 64. — FIVE- AND ELEVEN-TOOTH ONE-HORSE CULTIVATORS. EACH HAS 

A LEVER FOR VARYING THE WIDTH, AND ALSO GAUGE WHEELS. 

ONE HAS A SMOOTHING ATTACHMENT 



proper tilth of the ground, but are very troublesome in 
being easily clogged with trash. The six-shovel gangs 
are very popular for corn culture. The eight-shovel 
gangs may have each set of four shovels arranged either 
obiquely or in what is called a zigzag. Best cultivator 
shovels are made of soft-center steel. They are made of 
almost any width, and may be straight or twisted. The 
twisted shovel has a plow shape designed to throw the 
dirt to one side or the other, while the straight shovel 
must be adjusted on its shank to do this. The beam may 
be made of wood, steel channel, flat bar, or pipe. The 
wood beam is somewhat lighter, but not so strong or 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 93 

dural)le. The shanks may be constructed of the same 
material as the l)eani and are provided either with a 
break-pin device or knuckle joint to prevent breakage 
when an obstruction is struck. 

Flat springs may l)e used for the shanks, and when so 
used the term spring tooth is applied. Gopher shovels 
are arranged to take the place of a special surface culti- 
vator. Such an arrangement is not generally satisfactory. 
A device is sometimes added to keep the shovels facing 
directly to the front. Such a gang is spoken of as having 
a parallel beam. 

Seats are of two styles : the hammock and the straddle. 
The hammock seat is supported by the frame at each 
side and oflers a good opportunity to guide the gangs 
with the feet. The straddle seat is more rigid, hence is 
well adapted to the treadle- or lever-guided cultivators. 

The pivotal tongue is a device enabling the operator to 
vary the angle with which the tongue is attached to the 
cultivator frame. It may be used as a steering device, 
or to set the tongue at such an angle that the cultivator 
will not follow directly behind the team. It is very use- 
ful in side hill work wdiere the cultivator tends to crowd 
down the hill. It may also be used in turning in a 
limited space. 

The expanding axle permits the width of track to be 
varied, necessary on account of various widths of rows. 
It is accomplished by a divided steel axle or by the use 
of collars upon the axles. The divided axle permits of 
the use of the inclosed wheel box. It is an advantage to 
have the half axles reversible in that when the axle end 
becomes worn the opposite end may be substituted. 

Spacing. — Some provision should be made to widen or 
narrow the spacing of the gangs or rigs. On single-row 
cultivators this is accomplished by slipping the couplings 



94 



FARM MACHINERY 



in and out upon the front arch. The spacing in two- 
row machines should be accomplished by a lever which 
permits the change to be made while in operation. 

Suspension. — The gangs should be so suspended as to 
swing freely in a horizontal plane. If the point of sus- 
pension is too far back and the suspending arm or chain 
too short, the shovels will be lifted out of the ground as 




FIG. 65 — A TONGUELESS FOUR-SHOVEL CULTIVATOR WITH WOODEN GANGS. 
THE SHOVELS ARE NOT IN PLACE 



the gang is carried to either side. The farther ahead the 
gang is suspended and the longer the suspending arm, 
the more nearly the gang will swing in a plane. Con- 
siderable difference is experienced in the ease with which 
a long gang is guided compared with a short gang. This 
is due to the fact that as a short gang is swung to one 
side more work is done, as the shovels must be carried 
ahead ; while with a long gang the shovels are not carried 
ahead to such an extent. 

Coupling. — The double hinge joint by which the culti- 
vator gang is attached to the frame is called the coupling. 
Due provision should be found in the coupling for taking 
up wear. It is impossible to guide properly a gang with 
much lost motion in the coupling. 



TILLAGE MACTIINRRY 



95 



Raise of rigs. — Springs should be provided to aid the 
operator in lifting the heavy rigs. Also these springs are 
often used to aid in forcing the shovels into the ground. 

Levers. — In riding cultivators the lifting levers should 




FIG. 66 — A RIDING BALANCE-FRAME FOUR-SHOVEL CULTIVATOR WITH HAM- 
MOCK SEAT AND STEEL GANGS 



be so placed as to be easily handled from the seat. In 
two-row machines it is very essential to be able to work 
each gang independently in raising and lowering. Tn 
this way one gang may be freed from trash without 
molesting the others. 

Balance frame is a name applied to cultivators so con- 
structed that the position of the wheels may be so ad- 
justed, either by a lever- for the purpose or by the move- 
ment of the gangs, as to balance the weight of the driver 
and cultivator on the axle. 



96 



FARM MACHINERY 



Cultivator wheels should be high and provided with 
wide tires. 

Wheel boxes. — A notable improvement is found in the 
closing of the ends of the wheel boxes, making it possible 
to keep the bearings well lubricated. 

The spread arch is a device to cause the gangs to swing 
in unison, and should be made adjustable in width. 

Hitch. — It is a great advantage to have the height of 
hitch adjustable to horses of various sizes. 




|p-'4,^kfc^n 





FIG. 67 — A COMBINED WALKING AND RIDING SIX-SHOVEL CULTIVATOR 

WITH STRADDLE SEAT AND TREADLE GUIDE. THE HANDLES TO 

BE USED WHEN WALKING ARE NOT ATTACHED 

Treadle guide. — Upon many cultivators a device has 
been added to guide the gangs as a whole by foot levers. 



i\ 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 



97 



Such a device is called a treadle guide, and is often a very 
desirable feature. 

Pivotal wheels are a scheme for guiding cultivators. 
The wheels may be connected to a treadle device or to a 
lever worked by the hands. This plan permits of an easy 
control of the cultivator. 




FIG. 68 — A RIDING SURFACE CULTIVATOR 



A walking, tongueless cultivator with four-shovel 
gangs is illustrated in Fig. 65. The tongueless offers one 
advantage in requiring less room for turning. It is essen- 
tial that the team work very evenly to do good work. 
Fig. 66 illustrates a balance-frame six-shovel riding culti- 
vator with a hammock seat. The wheels may be drawn 



98 



FARM MACHINERY 



back by a lever when the gangs are lifted in order to be 
more directly under the weight and prevent the tongue 
from flying up. 

The combined cultivator, walking and riding, is illus- 
trated in Fig. 67. This cultivator has a straddle seat and 
a balancing lever to adjust for the weights of different 
riders. 

The surface, or the gopher, cultivator (Fig. 68) is used 
for surface cultivation. It is very effective in destroying 




III j«, 

a I' ft. ^,. 

FIG. 69 — A TWO-ROW CULTIVATOR, GUIDED WITH A LEVER 



weeds when small, conserving the soil moisture, and does 
not prune the corn roots when working close to the corn. 

The two-row cultivator is the latest production in the 
line of cultivators. It is a very useful tool v/here farm 
labor is scarce, and will do very creditable work for 
subsequent cultivations when the plants are of some 
height. Fig. 69 illustrates a cultivator of this type. 

The disk cultivator illustrated in Fig. 70 is a tool which 
will move large quantities of dirt to or from the corn. 



. ' r/ .» 



TILLAGE MACHINERY 



99 



It is useful on this account for covering large weeds. 
Fig. 71 illustrates the eagle-claw gang, or the usual ar- 
rangement of shovels in the eight-shovel cultivator. 




FIG. 70 — A DISK CULTIVATOR 

134. Listed corn cultivators.— For localities where 
the listing of corn is practiced, a cultivator has been 




FIG. 71 — AN E.\GLE-CLA\V FUUK-SHOVEL GANG 



LOFC. 



lOO 



FARM MACHINERY 



1 




designed to follow the listed furrow for the first two 
cultivations. The machine is guided either by sled 

runners or roller wheels 
which run in the furrow. 
The shovel equipment 
varies between shovels 
and disks. The cultivator 
is made for one or two 
rows, and is a very suc- 
cessful tool. 

135. Stalk cutter. — An 
implement in general use 
in corn and cotton regions and which should be men- 
tioned here is the stalk cutter. Its purpose is to cut 
cotton and corn stalks when left in the field into such 
lengths as not to interfere with the cultivation of the next 
crops. The implement, primarily consists in a cylinder 
with five to nine radial knives. It is rolled over the stalks, 



FIG. 72 — A SIMPLE LISTED CORN CUL- 
TIVATOR. DISKS ARE OFTEN USED IN 
PLACE OF THE SCRAPERS. THE IM- 
PLEMENT IS ALSO MADE TO CULTI- 
VATE TWO ROWS AT A TIME 




!iGlilllMpi|iiii||M|| Mlll|!|l 



FIG. 72, — A SINGLE-ROW STALK CUTTER 



TILLAGE MACHIXI^^Y lOI 

cutting them into short lengths. Stalk hooks are pro- 
vided which gather the stalks in front of the cylinder. 
Two types are found upon the market, the spiral and the 
straight knife cutters. The spiral knife cutter carries 
practically all of the weight of the machine on the cylin- 
der head while in operation, the side wheels being raised 
and the cylinder head brought in contact with the ground. 
Stiaight knife cutters have the cylinder head mounted in 
a frame, and when placed in operation are forced to the 
ground with spring pressure. The latter machine is much 
more j)Ieasant to operate, as it rides more smoothly. 
Some cutters are equipped with reversible knives with 
two edges sharpened. A stalk cutter attachment is made 
for a cultivator carriage. The implement in general may 
be had as a sinerle- or double-row machine. 



1 



CHAPTER VI 

SEEDING MACHINERY 

Seeders and Drills 

136. Development. — Seeding by hand was practiced universally 
until the middle of the last century. Seed was either dropped 
in hills and covered with the hoe, or broadcasted and covered 
with a harrow or a similar implement. In fact, in certain 
•localities in the United States hand dropping is practiced to 
some extent at the present time. Broadcasting seed by hand is 
practiced in many places. 

A sort of drill plow was developed ih Assyria long before the 
Christian era. Nothing definite is known of this tool, but it 
was evidently one of the crude plows of the time fitted with 
a hopper, from which the seed was led to the heel of the plow 
and drilled into the furrow. Just how the seed was fed into 
the tube we do not know. The Chinese claim the use of a 
similar tool 3,000 or 4,000 years ago. 

Jethro Tull was perhaps the first to develop an implement 
which in any way resembles our modern drill. In 1731 he pub- 
lished a work entitled "Horse Hoeing Husbandry," in which he 
set forth arguments to the effect that grain should not be broad- 
casted, but should be drilled in rows and cultivated. This is, 
in a measure, like the system promulgated by Campbell, and 
which bears his name. Tull designed a machine which would 
drill three rows of turnips or wheat at a time. He used a coulter 
as a furrow opener and planted seed at three diflferent depths 
His reason for this was that if one seeding failed, the others 
coming up later would be sure to be successful. Tull, like many 
others who spent their lives in invention, died poor, but he was 
successful in developing a line of drills, horse-hoes, and culti- 
vators. 

American development. — The first patent granted to an Ameri- 
can was that Eliakim Spooner in 1799. Nothing remains to 
tell us of the nature of this device. Many other patents followed 



SEEDING MACHINERY IO3 

the first, but none are worthy of mention until a patent was 
granted to J. Gibbons, of Adrian, Michigan, August 25, 1840. 
Gibbons's patent was upon the feeding cavities and a device for 
regulating the amount delivered. A year later he patented a 
cylindrical feeding roll with different-sized cavities. 

M. and S. Pennock. of East Marlboro, Pennsylvania, obtained 
a patent March 12, 1841, for an improvement in cylindrical drills. 
The patent pertained to throwing in and out of gear each seeding 
cylinder, and also to throwing the machine in and out of gear 
while in operation. These men manufactured their drill and 
sold it in considerable quantities. 

Following the patent issued to the Pennock brothers came a 
long list of patents upon "slide" and "force-feed" drills. Slide 
drills are distinguished from the others in that a slide is pro- 
vided to vary the size of the opening through which the seed 
has to pass, and in this way the amount of seed sown is varied. 
Force-feed drills carry the seed from the seed box in cavities 
in the seed cylinder, in which the amount is varied either by 
varying the size of seed pockets or by varying the speed of the 
seed cylinder. 

The first patent upon a force-feed grain drill was issued 
November 4, 1851, to N. Foster, G. Jessup, H. L. and C. P. 
Brown, and was the introduction of the term force feed. In 
1854 the Brown brothers incorporated as the Empire Drill Com- 
pany and established a factory at Shortsville, New York. In 
1866 C. P. Brown devised and patented a modification which 
has been known ever since as the "single distributer." One of 
Brown's employees, in connection with a Mr. Beckford, removed 
to Macedonia, New York, and in 1867 took out several patents 
which presented the "double distributer." The double distributer 
was a seed wheel with a flange on each side, one with large 
cavities and the other with small to suit the different sizes of 
grain. This system was adopted by the Superior Drill Com- 
pany, of Springfield, Ohio. In 1877 a patent was granted to J. P. 
Fulghum for a device for varying the length of the cavities of 
the seed cylinder, and thus varying the amount of seed drilled. 
This principle is now used by many manufacturers. 

The first drills were provided with hoes, but later a shoe was 
found to be more satisfactory. Perhaps the shoe was introduced 
by Brown, who devised the shoe for corn planters. 



I04 



FARM MACHINERY 



137. Classification of seeders. 

Broadcast seeders : 
. Hand, rotating distributer. 
Wheelbarrow. 

End-gate, rotating distributer. 
Wheeled broadcast : 
Wide track. Narrow track. 
Agitator feed. Force feed. 
Combination with cultivator. 
Combination with disk harrow. 

138. The hand seeder with rotating distributer consists 
of a star-shaped wheel which is given a rapid rotation 
either by gearing from a crank or by a bow, the string 
of which is given one wrap around the spindle of the 



! 




FIG. 74 — A 



CRANK HAND SEEDER. SEEDERS OF THIS KIND ARE ALSO 
OPERATED WITH A BOW 



distributing wiieel. Fig. 74 shows a seeder of this order. 
A bag is provided with straps which may be carried from 
the shoulders and the distributing mechanism placed at 
the bottom. The use of this seeder is confined to small 
areas, and the uniformity of its distribution of the seed 
is not the best. 



«l 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



105 



139. The wheelbarrow seeder is used to some extent 
for the sowing- of grass seed, and seems to l)e the survivor 
of this type of seeder, which was at one time used exten- 




FIG. 75 — A WHEELBARROW SEEDER 

sively in England. A vibrating- rod passes underneath 
the box and by stirring- causes the seed to flow out of the 
openings on the under side of the seed box. 

140. The end-gate seeder is provided with a rotating 
or whirling distributer much like the hand machine first 
described. Formerly nearly all of this type of machine 




FIG. 76 — AN END-GATE SEEDER WITH A FORCE FEED AND FRICTION GEAR- 
ING. THIS MACHINE HAS TWO SEED DISTRIBUTERS 



io6 



FARM MACHINERY 



had only one distributer, bvit now the better makes are 
provided with two and a force-feed device to convey the 
seed to the distributer, i'ower to operate the seeder is 
obtained from a sprocket bolted to one wheel of the 
wagon on which the seeder is mounted, and transmitted 
to the seeder with a chain. The distributer is geared 
either by bevel or friction gears. It is stated that the 
friction gear relieves the strain on the machine when 
starting, and also runs noiselessly. The bevel gear drive 




FIG. ^]^ — AN AGITATOR-FEED BROADCAST SEEDER WITH CULTIVATOR COVER- 
ING SHOVELS. THIS IS A WIDE-TRACK MACHINE 



is more durable and is recommended as being preferable 
by manufacturers who manufacture both styles of gears. 
The same criticism may be made of this machine as 
of the hand machine. The distribution of the seed is not 
the best, and great accuracy in seeding is not possible. 
As the seeder is high above the ground, the wind hinders 
the operation of the machine to such an extent as to 
prevent its use in anything but a light wind or calm. In 
order to secure greater accuracy, the seed in some makes 
is fed the distributer by a force-feed device. A small 
seeder of this type has been arranged to be placed upon 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



107 



a cultivator to sow a strip of ground the width of the 
cultivator as the ground is cultivated. This seeder has 
not as yet reached an extended use. 

141. Agitator feed. — A broadcast seeder is still upon the 
market not provided with a force feed, but having what 
is known as an agitator feed. This feed is composed of 
a series of adjustable seed holes or vents in the bottom 
of the hopper, and over each is an agitator or stirring 
wheel to keep the seed holes open and pass the seed to 
them. The agitator feed, although cheaper and more 
simple than others, is not so accurate as the force feed 
described later. 

Fig. jy illustrates a broadcast seeder with an agitator 
feed and cultivator gangs attached. This seeder is 
usually used without any covering device ; however, it 
may be procured with the cultivator gangs or with a 
spring-tooth harrow attachment. 




FIG. 78 — A FORCE-FEED DEVICE. THE FEED IS VARIED BY EXPOSING MORE 
OR LESS OF THE FLUTED FEED SHELL 



142. Force-feed seeders and drills derive their name 
from the manner in which the grain is carried from the 



io8 



FARM MACHINERY 



seed box. A feed shell is provided which is attached to 
a revolving shaft receiving its motion from the main axle. 

F"ig. 78 shows the most com- 
mon force-feed device. In 
the fluted cylinder, the de- 
vice illustrated, the feed is 
regulated by exposing more 
or less of the cylinder to the 
grairi. The feed shell is also 
designed in other ways. The 
seed cells may be on the inside and without any means 
of regulating the size of the cell. The feed or the amount 
of seed is regulated by varying the speed of the shaft 
carrying the feed shells by gearing as shown in Fig. 80. 



1 




FIG. 79 — ANOTHER TYPE OF FORCE 
FEED 




FIG. 80 — A FEED-REGULATING DEVICE USED IN CONNECTION WITH A FORCE 
FEED SIMILAR TO THAT SHOWN IN FIG. 79 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



109 



In order lo handle successfully seeds of dififerent size, 
the feed shell is made with two flans^es with seed cells 




FIG. 81 — A FORCE-FEED BROADCAST SEEDER WITH NARROW-TRACK TRUCK 



of different sizes in each. The cells best suited to the 
grain drilled are used, while the others are covered. 
143. Width of track. — Broadcast seeders are now made 




FIG. 82 — A COMBINED DISK HARROW AND SEEDER. THIS MACHINE MAY 
ALSO BE SET TO DRILL FROM SEED SPOUTS AT THE REAR 



no FARM MACHINERY 

with either wide or narrow track. Perhaps the wide 
track is the stronger construction and permits of higher 
wheels, but the narrow track permits of greater ease in 
turning and there is not the tendency to whip the horses' 
shoulders as with the wide track. 

144. Combination seeders. — Broadcast seeders with 
cultivator and spring-tooth harrow attachments have 
been referred to. A popular tool now is the seeder at- 
tachment for the disk harrow. This attachment resem- 
bles very closely the force-feed broadcast seeder mounted 
above each of the harrow sections, and is operated by 
suitable sprocket wheels and chain from the main shaft 
of the disk. By the use of this tool two tools may be 
combined in one. The disk gangs, owing to their tend- 
ency to slip occasionally, do not make an entirely satis- 
factory drive. This is especially true in trashy ground. 
To surmount this difficulty, combination seeders are 
made with a follower wheel to drive the seeder. 

DRILLS 

Drills are provided with a force feed much like those 
used upon seeders, but are distinguished from each other 
in the type of furrow opener and covering devices used. 

145. Classification of drills. 

Furrow openers : 
Hoe. 
Shoe. 

Single-disk. 
Double-disk. 

Covering devices : 

Chains. 

Press wheels. 

Press wheel attachment. 
Interchangeable disk and shoe drills. 

146. The hoe drill was the first to be developed, and 
it is not difficult to see why this should be. The 



^ 



4 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



III 



hoes are provided with break pins or spring trips 
in order that they may not be broken when striking an 
obstruction. These trip de\iccs reseml)le very much 
those used upon cultivators. The hoe drill has good 
penetration, but clogs badly with trash. It is used 
extensively as a five-hoe drill for drilling in corn 
ground between rows of standing corn. 

147. The shoe drill came into use about 1885 and has 
many advantages over the hoe drill. In fact, it was used 
almost entirely until the more recent development in the 
nature of the disk drill. Fig. 83 illustrates a shoe drill 
with high press wheels. The shoes are pressed into the 
ground with either flat or coil springs, which permit an 
independent action and prevent to a certain extent clog- 
ging with trash. It is claimed that flat springs do not 
tire as readily as coil springs, but coil springs seem to be 
almost universally used. 




FIG. 83 — A LOW-DOWN PRESS DRILL WITH SHOE FURROW OPENERS 



112 



FARM MACHINERY 



148. Disk drills are the more recent development and 
consist of two classes : those with single- and double- 
disk furrow openers. In the single-disk type the disk is 
formed much like those used on disk harrows. Some 
form of heel or auxiliary shoe is provided to insert the 
grain in the bottom of the furrow made. It is desirable 
that the passage for the seed be so arranged that there 
can be but little chance for it to become clogged with 
dirt. The furrow opener that allows the seed to come 
into direct contact with the disk is not to be advised, but 
an inclosed boot should be provided to lead the seed into 
the bottom of the furrow. Some ingenuity is displayed 
by different makers in securing the desired results in 
this respect. In some drills the grain is led through the 
center of the disk. The single-disk may be given some 




FIG. 84 — A STANDARD SINGLE-DISK DRILL WITH A PRESS-WHEEL ATTACH- 
MENT. THE STEEL RIBBON SEED TUBES ARE ALSO SHOWN 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



113 



suction, and therefore has more penetration than any 
other form of disk opener, fittinc^ it especially for hard 




FIG. 85 — THE HOE, DOUBLE-DISK, SINGLE-DISK, AND SHOE FURROW 

OPENERS USED ON DRILLS. THESE ARE OFTEN MADE 

INTERCHANGEABLE 



114 FARM MACHINERY 

and trashy ground. The single disk has one objection, 
and that is that it tends to make the ground uneven, since 
the soil is thrown in only one direction. 

The double-disk furrow opener has two disks, or really 
coulters, as they are flat and their action is much like that 
of the shoe. One disk usually precedes the other by a 
short distance. The double-disk has not the penetration 
of the single-disk, but will not ridge the ground as the 
single-disk does. They often have another bad feature 
in that they allow dry dirt to fall on the seed, and hence 
prevent early germination. The single-disk drill does 
more to improve the tilth of the ground than any other 
furrow opener. The fact that a slight ridge is left in the 
center of the furrow with the double-disk is considered 
by some an advantage, as the seed is better distributed; 
in fact, two rows are planted instead of one. 

149. Interchangeable parts. — Most manufacturers now 
design their drills in such a way that any one of the 
various styles of furrow openers may be used. Fig. 85 
shows furrow openers which may be used on the same 
drill. 

150. Press wheels. — Not a few years ago drills were 
equipped to a large extent with press wheels, but now 
they are not so popular. The press wheel, when sufficient 
pressure can be applied, is evidently a very good thing, 
as the earth is compacted around the seed and the 
moisture is drawn up to the seed, causing early germina- 
tion. The pressure upon each press wheel must neces- 
sarily be very small, as most of the weight of the drill is 
required to force the furrow openers into the ground, and 
the balance is to be divided over a number of press 
wheels. It is not an uncommon thing to see an old drill 
running with some of the press wheels entirely off of the 
ground. Drills have been made in two distinct types, one 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



115 



known as the standard drill with the large wheels at the 
end of the seed l)ox and ccjuipped with small press wheels, 
and another where large press wheels were used and the 
large wheels at the end of the seed box dispensed with, 
which is spoken of as a low-down drill. 

151. Press-wheel attachment. — In order to make their 
machine become more universal, manufacturers have pro- 
vided press-wheel attachments for those who wish them, 
and the}^ are detachable and do not interfere with the 
use of the drill whether with or without them. It is to 
be mentioned here that the drill has many conditions to 
meet, and a drill which will do satisfactory work in one 
section may not in another. Thus in a wheat territory, 
where the ground is not plowed every year and a drill 
with great penetration is needed. In other sections 
where the ground is carefully prepared this particular 
feature is not so important. Press-wheel attachments are 
a nuisance in turning, and it is out of the question to back 
the machine. 

152. Covering chains. — Chains are often provided to 
follow after the furrow openers, and their sole purpose is 
to insure a covering of the grain. 

Formerly the grain tube or the spouts which convey 
the grain to the furrow opener were made of rubber, but 
the best used at the present time are made either of steel 
wire, or, still better, steel ribbon. 

153. Disk drills. — Indications point toward the dis- 
placement of all forms of furrow openers by the single- 
disk opener. The single-disk will meet nearly all of the 
many conditions to be encountered. The double-disk is 
not much better in many respects than the shoe. The 
single-disk has good penetration, and besides is especially 
well adapted to cut its way through trash. Against it 
stand two objections: One is that there is a tendency for 



ii6 



FARM MACHINERY 



it to clog when the ground is wet, and the other is its 
weak point, the bearing. With the shoe drill, the wear is 
upon the shoe itself, but with the disk there is a spindle, 
and being so close to the surface of the soil, it is in a bad 
place to keep free from dirt and to lubricate. The bear- 
ings in use consist almost universally of chilled iron. 
Wood has proved itself to be especially well adapted for 




-A STANDARD SINGLE-DISK DRILL WITH COVERING CHAINS 



a place of this kind, but does not seem to be used. At 
any rate, in the purchase of a drill a close inspection 
should be made of the bearings to see that they are so 
designed as to give a large wearing surface, to be as 
nearly as possible dust proof, and to be provided with the 
proper kind of oil cups or other device for oiling. 

154. Distance between furrow openers. — Drills are 
usually made 5, 6, or 7 inches between furrow openers. 
Perhaps 6 inches is the width generally used. They are 



SEEDixr, ^rA(•|| i.N'KRY 117 

placed 14 t(-» 16 inches or more a])arl in the Campbell 
system, and then the i^rain cultivated during the growing 
season. It is thought desiral)le by some to have a slight 
ridge between the rows in order to hold the snow and to 
protect the young plant seeded in the fall from being 
affected so much by heaving. The action of the wind is 
to wear the ridges down, and in this way tend to cultivate 
the plants. 

155. Horse lift. — The gangs of drills are very heavy 
and somewhat difficult to handle with levers, the levers 
being called upon to force the furrow openers into the 
ground while at work. To assist in this an automatic 
horse lift is provided on the larger drills. 

156. Footboard. — To replace the seat a footboard is 
often placed on the drill. The operator in this case rides 
standing and is in a handy position to dismount. 

157. Grass-seed attachment. — The feed shell arranged 
to drill the larger field grains does not have the refinement 
to drill grass seed with accuracy. It is often desired to 
drill the grass set^l at the same time as the grain, and 
good results cannot be had by mixing and drilling to- 
gether. The grass-seed attachment does not differ much 
from other devices except in size. Grass-seed attach- 
ments are often poorly constructed and become so open 
as to prevent their use after a few years' service. 

158. Fertilizer attachment. — Practically all drill manu- 
facturers can now furnish their machines with an attach- 
ment for drilling commercial fertilizer at the time of 
seeding. The fertilizer is usually fed by means of a plain 
rotating disk, which carries the fertilizer out from under 
the box. The seed mechanism will not work with ferti- 
lizer, as there is a great tendency to corrode on the part 
of some of the fertilizers. 

159. The five-hoe or disk drill. — This tool is used for 



ii8 



FARM MACHINERY 



putting fall grain in corn ground v/hile the corn is stand- 
ing. The disk drill has been displacing the hoe drill 
because it does not clog as easily with corn leaves. Fig. 
87 shows a five-disk drill with a footboard so arranged 
that the operator may ride when it is necessary to add 
his weight to secure greater penetration. 

160. Construction. — In purchasing a drill it might be 
well to investigate the construction. The implement, be- 




FIG. 87 — A FIVE-DISK DRILL FOR DRILLING BETWEEN CORN ROWS. THE 
CENTER FURROW OPENER IS A DOUBLE DISK 



cause it is so heavy and often wide, should be provided 
with a strong frame. Angle bars or either round or 
square pipes are used to make the main frame. The 
frames are often provided with truss rods in order to 
stiffen them as much as possible. Some of the heavier 
drills are now made with tongue trucks much like disk 
harrows referred to in a preceding chapter. They are a 
very satisfactory addition. 

161. Draft of drills. — Drills are not as a rule light of 
draft for the number of horses used. The following re- 



J 



SEEDING MACHINERY II9 

suits are ^qivcn from experiments made at the Iowa ex- 
periment station : 

Distance Distance Total 

Kind of Apart at No. of covered Draft Draft 

Drill Disk Drill Rows Disks in Feet in Pounds per Foot 

No. 4. Double 8" 10 6.7 450 67.1 

No. 5. Single 8" lO 6.7 460 68.6 

Neither of the above drills was provided with any form 
of covering" device other than chains. It is to be noted 
from the above tests that the single-disk drill requires 
more power than the double-disk in pulverizing the 
ground, but the difference is small. 

162. Calibration. — The scales or gages placed upon 
driller and seeders to indicate the amount of seed drilled 
per acre arc not as a rule to be depended upon for great 
accuracy. If they are correct at first, there is a tendency 
for them to become inaccurate as the drill becomes old. 
The operator should make calculations of the ground 
drilled and the amount of grain used, and in this way 
check the scale of the drill. Drills calibrated have shown 
the scale to be in error as much as 25 per cent. 

163. Clean seed. — The drill is displacing, to a large ex- 
tent, the broadcast seeder because the farmer desires to 
place all of the seed in the ground and at the proper 
depth. With the broadcast seeder, where various meth- 
ods of covering of the seed are resorted to, the seed can- 
not be covered a uniform depth. Practically all fall seed- 
ing is now done with drills, and the broadcasting is used 
for the seeding of spring grains alone. Experiments at 
the Ohio, Indiana, North and South Dakota stations give, 
without an exception, better results from drilling, the in- 
creased yields for the drilling being from 2 to 5 bushels. 
In order to have a drill do its best work, great stress 
should be laid upon the fact that all grain should be clean 



I20 FARM MACHINERY 

and especially free from short lengths of weed stems, 
which are often found in grain as it comes from the 
threshing machine. These stems or pieces of straw 
may lodge in the feedway and prevent the grain from 
getting into the seed wheel. 

CORN PLANTERS 

164. Development. — Corn planters are strictly an American 
invention. This is not strange, for corn, or maize, is peculiarly 
an American crop. The development of the planter has also been 
recent; not much over 50 years have elapsed since the planter 
has been made a success. The Indians were the first to culti- 
vate corn, but they never had anything but the most primitive 
of tools. Until the development of the horse machine, corn was 
almost universally planted and covered by means of the hoe, 
and in localities where a very limited amount of corn is grown 
the method is followed to-day. 

The first machines used for seeding were universal in the 
respect that they were used for the smaller grains as well as 
corn. Perhaps the first patent granted on what may be styled 
a corn planter was given March 12, 1839, to D. S. Rockwell. In 
this planter may be seen in a somewhat primitive form some of 
the features of the modern planter. The furrow openers were 
vertical shovels, and the planter was supported in front and in 
the rear with wheels with the dimensions of rollers. The corn 
was dropped by means of a slide underneath the box. The 
jointed frame was patented by G. Mott Miller in 1843. George 
W. Brown, of Galesburg, Illinois, devoted much of his time to 
the development of the corn planter and secured patents on 
many features. To Brown's efforts is credited the shoe furrow 
opener, the rotary drop, and a method of operating the drop by 
hand. A patent on a marker was granted to E. McCormick in 
1855 as a device projecting from the end of the axle. The present 
marker was set forth in a patent secured by Jafvis Case, of La- 
fayette, Indiana, in 1857. In about 1892 the Dooley brothers, of 
Moline, Illinois, brought out the edge-selection drop used ex- 
tensively on the more recent planters. 

165. Development of the check rower. — It seems that all the 
early planters were automatic, in that an operator was not 
needed to work the dropping mechanism. In 1851 a patent was 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



121 



granted to E. Corey, of Jerscyvillc, Illinois, for a device to mark 
the point where the corn was planted, and this device led to 
the use of a marker in laying oflf fields and putting the hills of 
corn in check. Brown's patent previously referred to was the 
first patent to cover the hand-dropping idea. ]\I. Robbins, of 
Cincinnati, patented in 1857 a checking device for a one-horse 
drill using a jointed rod and cliain pro- 
vided with buttons for a line. The check 
rower was developed to a practical de- 
vice by the Haworth brothers. The 
Haworth was for a long time the stand- 
ard machine. The check wire in this 
implement was made to travel across the 
machine. Among the first of the side- 
drop check rowers was the Avery, which 
became at one time very popular. Recent 
changes in check rowers have been con- 
fined to reducing the amount of work 
done by the machine. 

166. Hand planters have never 
come into any extended use, as they 
are not any great improvement over 
the hoe. This planter is made now 
much like it was years ago. Fig. 88 
shows the common style and is used 
to some extent in replanting. A 
slide extends from one handle to the 
other and passes under the small 
seed box. ^^^^en the slide is under 
the box a hole of the proper size is 
filled with the desired number of 
grains. When the handles are 
opened so as to close the pomts the 
hill of corn is drawn from under the 
seed box and allowed to fall to the 
point. There are modifications of this 
hand planter in which a plate is used 




FIG. 05 — A HAND CORN 
PLANTER. THE CORN 
IS DRAWN FROM UNDER 
THE SEED BOX BY A 
SLIDE UPON CLOSING 
AND OPENING THE 
HANDLES 



122 FARM MACHINERY 

and made to revolve by pawls which act by opening and 
closing the planter. 

167. The modern planter. — Although most planters are 
called upon to do about the same work, they differ much 
in construction. The essentials of a good, successful 




FIG. 89 — A MODERN CORN PLANTER WITH LONG CURVED FURROW OPENERS, 
VERTICAL CHECK HEAD, AND OPEN WHEELS 

planter have been set forth as follows: (i) It must be 
accurate in dropping at all times ; (2) plant at a uniform 
depth; (3) cover the seed properly; (4) convenient and 
durable; and (5) simple in construction. 

168. Drops. — The early planters had slides or plates in 
which holes or seed cells were provided which were large 
enough to hold a sufficient number of kernels to make 
an entire hill of corn. Planters are constructed in this 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



123 



manner and offer some advantages in droppinq^ uneven 
seed. This style of drop is known as the full-hill drop. 

The cumulative drop was the result of an effort to raise 
the accuracy of dropping. In the cumulative drop the 
grains are counted out separately (a seed cell being pro- 
vided in the seed plate for each kernel) until a hill is 
formed, the theory of the accuracy being that there is less 
chance for one less or more kernels when the cell is nearly 





FIG. 90 — THE ROUND-HOLE 
SEED PLATE 



FIG. 91 — THE EDGE-SELECTION 
PLATE 



the size of each kernel, while in the larger cell three small 
kernels could easily make room for the fourth. 

169. Plates. — The round-hole plate is a flat plate with 
round holes for seed cells ; hence the name. The round- 
hole plate may belong to a full-hill or a cumulative drop 
planter. 

The edge-selection or edge drop plate has deep narrow 
cells arranged on its outer edge, in which the corn kernel 
is received on its edge (Fig. 91). The arguments ad- 
vanced in favor of this plan are that the corn kernel is more 
uniform in thickness than any other dimension, and owing 
to the depth of the cells is not so apt to be dislodged by 
the so-called cut-off. The majority of planter manufac- 
turers within the past few years have brought out an 



124 FARM MACHINERY 

edge-selection drop-plate planter and claimed great accu- 
racy for it. Varieties of corn differ very much in the 
width of kernel, and for this reason provision has been 
made by at least one manufacturer to vary the depth of 
the edge-selection cell by substituting grooved bottoms 
to the seed box over which the plate travels. A device is 
provided with the flat plate for the same purpose. ' The 
outside edge of the cell is made open, into which a 
spring fits, excluding all but one kernel. 

170. Plate movement. — Plates are made to revolve in 
a horizontal plane, and also in a vertical plane. To plates 
in these positions the names of horizontal plate and verti- 
cal plate are given, respectively. 

The intermittent plate movement is one where the plate 
is revolved until a hill is counted out, and then remains 
at rest until put in motion for another hill by the check 
wire. The movement may belong to full-hill or cumu- 
lative drops. The argument is set forth that the seed cells 
are filled to better advantage by this intermittent motion ; 
the starting and stopping will shake the corn into the 
cells. To cause the seed cells to fill more perfectly, the 
kernels are prearranged by the corrugations and the slope 
of the seed-box bottom. 

In the continuous plate movement the plates are driven 
from the main axle usually by a chain and sprockets. 
While the plates travel continuously, the size of the hill 
is determined by a valve movement which opens and 
closes the outlet from the seed plate. To produce this 
movement, two clutches with double cam attachments, 
one at each hopper, are used. At each trip of the planter 
the dog on the clutch is thrown out, and it turns through 
one-half revolution, allowing one cam to pass ; at the same 
time the arm of the valve glides over the cam and opens 
the outlet to the hopper, which allows the corn to drop from 



- 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



125 



each cell until the cam passes and the arm drops, closing 
the valve. Thus the leni^th of this cam determines the 
length of time the valve is open, thereby controlling the 
number of kernels in the hill. Several lengths of cams 
are furnished with each planter. It is claimed in opposi- 
tion to the claim set forth for the intermittent movement 
that the cells are more apt to be filled, for they are in con- 
tinuous motion and travel a greater distance under the 
corn. 

171. The clutch. — In the early planters the plate was 
drivenentirelyby thecheck wire. Witheachbuttontheplate 




Top View 

FIG. 92 — THE SEED-SHAFT CLUTCH WHICH IS THROWN IN GEAR BY THE 

CHECK WIRE. THE POWER TO DRIVE THE SEED SHAFT THEN 

COMES FROM THE MAIN AXLE, NOT THE CHECK WIRE 

was moved just far enough to deposit one hill in the seed 
tube. When the cumulative drop was developed, a means 
had to be provided to rotate the plate long enough to 
count out the hill. To arrange for this, the button was 



126 



FARM MACHINERY 



made to throw a clutch which put the dropper shaft in 
connection with a chain drive from the main axle. This 
clutch remained in gear for one revolution of the shaft, 
which is equivalent to one-fourth revolution of the seed 
plate. The one-fourth of the seed plate was arranged 
with enough seed cells to count out one hill. This clutch 
may be made to operate a valve which will permit a suffi- 




For Hill Drop 



Fixed to Drill 



FIG. 93- 



-A DOUBLE VALVE MECHANISM SHOWING HOW THE CORN IS RE- 
LEASED AT THE HEEL OF THE FURROW OPENER 



cient number of kernels to leave the plate to make a hill 
as described above. The clutch has relieved the check 
wire of a large portion of its work. It is only required 
to put the clutch in gear and to open the valves in the 
shank. The clutch is one of the vital parts of the planter, 
and is often the first part to wear out and give trouble. 
Fig. 92 illustrates a planter clutch. 

172. Valves are divided into two classes: single and 
double valves. The single valve is placed in the heel of 



SEEDING MACHINERY I27 

the furrow opener. The corn may be either caui^ht here 
a sin.yle grain at a time or a full hill at a time. When the 
check wire throws the valve open to let a hill out, it 
closes in time to catch the next hill. 

With the double valve, the hill is caught twice in its 
transit from the seed bo.x to the ground. Fig. 93 shows 
one style of double-valve arrangement. 

The lower valves are made quite close to the ground 
and arranged to discharge backward and downward 




FIG. 94 — THE STUB-RUNNER FURROW OPENER 

into the furrow to overcome the tendency to carry the hill 
on and make uneven checking. 

173. Furrow openers. — The curved runner is used on a 
large majority of planters as a furrow opener. It is easy 
to guide, but will not penetrate trash or hard soil as well 
as some others. The curved runner is illustrated in 
Fig. 89. 

The stub runner has good penetration and will hook 
under trash and let it drag to one side out of the way. 



128 



FARM MACHINERY 



There is less tendency for the stub runner to ride over 
trash than the curved runner. Fig. 94 shows a stub 
runner. The stub runner cannot be used in stony or 
stumpy land. 

The single-disk furrow opener has good penetration and 
is desired in some localities for that reason. It is also 
better adapted to trashy ground, the disks cutting their 
way through. The disks may or may not reduce draft; 




FIG. 95 — THE SINGLE-DISK FURROW OPENER 



at any rate, the planter is not a heavy-draft implement. 
Penetration is not often needed ; more often the planter 
has a tendency to run too deep. The single-disk planter 
throws the soil out one way, and it is difficult for the 
wheels to cover the seed. The disk has a bearing to wear 
out, which the runner has not. 

The double disk cuts through trash to good advantage, 
but does not have the penetration of the single disk. It 



SEEDING MACHINERY 129 

has two bearings to wear out to each furrow opener. It 
is claimed dry dirt falls in behind the disks on the corn, 
preventing early germination. All disk planters are very 
hard to guide. They do not follow the team well. 




FIG. 96 — A CORN PLANTER WITH DOUBLE-DISK FURROW OPENERS, OPEN 
WHEELS, AND HORIZONTAL CHECK HEADS 

174. Planter wheels may be had in almost any height, 
from very low wheels to those high enough to straddle 
listed corn ridges. The tire may be flat, concave, or open 

(Fig. 97)- 

The flat wheel is not used to any extent on planters 
to-day, but is offered for sale by most manufacturers. 
It does not draw the soil well over the corn, but 
leaves this hard and smooth to bake in the sun. and gives 
the water a smooth course to follow after heavy rains. 



130 FARM MACHINERY 

The concave wheel gathers the soil better than the flat 
wheel, but leaves the surface smooth. 

The open wheel is now used to a larger extent than any 
other type. It has the good gather, covering the corn 




FIG. 97 — CORN-PLANTER WHEELS WITH CONCAVE, FLAT, AND OPEN TIRE; 
ALSO THE DOUBLE WHEEL 



well ; the ground has no tendency to bake over the corn, 
and the water during rains is carried to one side of the 
track. 

The double wheel consists in two wheels instead of one 
to cover the corn, and may be set with more or less 
gather, thus being able to cover the corn under all con- 
ditions. 

175. Fertilizer attachment. — In some localities it is 
necessary to use fertilizer to secure an early and quick 
growth of corn. An attachment is made to drop fertilizer 
for each hill, and careful adjustment must be made to 
drop the fertilizer the right distance from the hill. If too 
far away, it will not give immediate benefits, and if placed 
too close, will rot the corn. This adjustment is difficult 
owing to the difference in speeds at which planters are 
operated. 

176. Marker. — IMarkers are made in two styles, the 
sliding and the disk. The disk has proved to be a very 
satisfactory marker. 



SEEDING MACHINERY I3I 

177. Wire reel. — Two types of check wire reels have 
been developed : one to reel by friction contact to the 
planter wheel, and one to reel under the seat with a chain 
to the main axle, using a friction clutch on the spool. It 
is claimed to be desirable to wind the wire on a solid, 
smooth drum rather than on a reel, as the former kinks 
the wire less. 

178. Conveniences. — In making a purchase of a planter 
it is well to have in mind the conveniences which may be 
had, as well as the matter of strength, durability, and 
accuracy. Convenience in turning and reeling the wire 
is first to be considered. Another advantage offered by 
some planters over others is in the convenience of 
changing plates. It is very handy to have a seed box 
which may be tipped over and emptied without picking 
the seed out by hand. 

The planter should have an adjustable tongue by which 
the front may be kept level. Unless the planter front is 
level, an accurate check cannot be obtained if the heel of 
the furrow opener is too far ahead or too far to the rear. 
It is impossible to get an even check if the planter front 
is not carried level. 

It is desirable to have the check-rower arms act inde- 
pendently of each other, as it relieves the wire of some 
work. Two types of check heads for check rowers are 
used, the vertical and horizontal, but seem to be equally 
satisfactory. 

179. Draft of planters. — Draft tests gave the following 
results for the mean draft of two styles of planters : 

Planter with open wheels 212 pounds 

Planter with double wheels 237 pounds 

180. Calibration of planters. — It is an undisputed fact 
that high accuracy cannot be secured with any plante' 



132 



FARM MACHINERY 



unless the corn be of uniform size and a seed plate chosen 
to suit the size of corn. Types of corn vary much in size 
of kernel, and one plate will not suit all types and varie- 
ties. Makers usually furnish several plates vv^ith their 
machines, and others may be secured if necessary. It 
stands to reason that no planter can do good work unless 
these conditions are fulfilled. The planter should be cali- 
brated and tested before taken to the field, if accuracy of 
work is desired. 

i8i. Corn drills. — Although most planters may be set 
to drill corn, the corn drill remains a distinct tool and is 









FIG. 98 — THE SINGLE-ROW CORN DRILL 



used to a large extent in certain localities of the country. 
Fig. 98' shows a single-row drill which dififers but little 
from others except that an extra knife is provided in front 
of the seed tube. Various covering devices in the way of 
shovels and disks are provided. Drills are now made to 
take two rows, and even four, when made as an attach- 
ment to a grain drill. 

182. Listers. — The use of the lister is confined to the 
semi-arid regions. It can be used in most of the corn- 
growing sections where the rainfall is not overabundant. 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



^33 



It is not adapted to fields that are extremely level, as 
water will collect in the ditches after rains and drown the 
corn while small. Neither can it be used in hilly locali- 
ties, as the corn will in this case be washed out. 

The lister is simply a double plow throwing a furrow 
both ways. The seedbed is prepared at the bottom of the 
furrow with a subsoiler. The planting may be done later 
or with an attached drill, which plants as the furrow is 
opened up. Thus plowing and planting are done at one 
operation. Fig. 99 shows one of the latest styles of walk- 




FIG. 99 — A SINGLE-KUW WALKING LISTER WITH A CORN DRILL ATTACHED. 
DISKS ARE USED IN PLACE OF THE COVERING SHOVEL 



Ing listers with sprocket-wheel-covering attachments. 
The drill attachment may be used independently as a 
drill. Fig. 100 is a representative three-wheel riding 
lister. Riding listers are also made without the furrow 
wheel, and when so made are termed sulky listers. Even 
the lister as a single-row machine has not been rapid 
enough for the Western farmer, and several makes of a 
two-row lister are to be found upon the market. 

183. Loose-ground listers. — Listing of corn has some 
disadvantages. W'hen listing is practiced, the soil is not 
all loosened, and when successive crops are grown in the 
same way an effect upon the yield is noticed. To gain the 



134 



FARM MACHINERY 








IS^.^ " — ^" 




FIG. lOI — A TWO-ROW LISTER 



SEEDING MACHINERY 



135 



advantages of listing after plowing, the loose-ground 
lister has been developed. This tool is a two-row ma- 
chine provided with disks to open the furrow, instead of 
right and left moldboards. Moldboards will not scour in 
loose ground, hence the use of disks. When the loose- 
ground lister is used, the ground must be plowed as for 
the planter, thus increasing the cost. The merits of the 
system consist in having the corn deeper to stand the 
drought better, and to be better braced to stand the high 




FIG. 102- 



-A LOOSE-GROUND LISTER. DISK FURROW OPENERS MAY BE USED 
ON PLANTER FOR THE SAME PURPOSE 



winds of the fall and not become "lodged." The fact 
that the corn is placed in a furrow makes it more easily 
tended because there is a large amount of soil to be moved 
toward the corn. In the moving of this dirt, any weeds 
are easily destroyed. Fig. 102 shows a loose-ground 
lister. Attachments are provided which may be placed 
upon corn planters to give the same results. 



CHAPTER VII 



HARVESTING MACHINERY 



Agricultural machinery has done much for the agri- 
culturist in enabling him to accomplish more in a given 
time, and to do it with less effort, than before its intro- 
duction. Although this is true of all agricultural ma- 
chinery, it is especially true of harvesting machinery. 
By its use it has been estimated that the amount of labor 
required to produce a bushel of wheat has been reduced 
from 3 hours and 3 minutes to 10 minutes. 

In this brief discussion harvesting 
machinery will be considered in its 
broadest sense and will include reap- 
ers, self-binders, headers, combined 
harvesters, and corn-harvesting ma- 
chinery. 

184. Development of hand tools, — From 
the oldest records that remain we find that 
the people of that early time were pro- 
vided with crude hand tools for the reap- 
ing of grain. These primitive sickles, or 
reaping hooks, were made of flint and 
bronze, and are found among the remains left by the older 
nations. Upon the tombs at Thebes, in Egypt, are found 
pictures of slaves reaping. These pictures were made 1400 
or 1500 B.C. The form of the Egyptian sickles varied some- 
what, but consisted generally of a curved blade with a straight 
handle. 

The scythe is a development from the sickle and differs from 
it in that the operator can use both hands instead of one. The 
Flemish people developed a tool known as the Hainault scythe. 
It has a wide blade 2 feet long, having a handle about i foot in 




FIG. 103 — THE SICKLE, 
AN EARLY HAND- 
REAPING TOOL 



HARVliSTING MACHINERY 



137 




length. The handle is bent at the upper end and is provided with 
a leather loop, into which the forefinger is inserted to aid in 
keeping the tool horizontal. The grain was gathered by a hook 
in the left hand. This tool was displaced later by the cradle. 

Development in scythes has consisted in making the blade 
lighter, lengthening the handle, and adding fingers to collect 
the grain and to carry it to the 
end of the stroke. With the 
addition of the fingers, the tool 
was given a new name, that of 
the cradle scythe, or the cradle. 
And it was in this tool that the 
first American development 
took place. The colonists, when 
they settled in this country, prob- 
ably brought wMth them all of 
the European types, and the 
American cradle was simply an 
improvement over the old coun- 
try tools. The time of the intro- fig- 104— the American cradle. 
duction of the cradle has been ^"^ ^o^^ ^sed for reaping 

-,,_,. . UNTIL AFTER THE MIDDLE OF 

fixed by Professor Brewer, of the nineteenth century 
Yale, in an article written for 

the Census Report of 1880, as somewhere between 1776 and the 
close of the eighteenth century. 

The American cradle stands at the head of all hand tools 
devised for the reaping of grain. When it was once perfected, 
its use spread to all countries, with very little change in form. 
It has been displaced, it is true, by the horse reaper almost 
entirely; yet there are places in this country and abroad where 
conditions are such that reaping machines are impracticable and 
where the cradle has still a work to do. Again, there are parts 
of the world where the reaping machine has never been intro- 
duced and where the sickle and the cradle are the only tools 
used for reaping. It seems almost incredible that any people 
should be so backward as to be using at the present time these 
primitive tools, yet it is to be remembered that even the most 
advanced nations used them for centuries, and apparently did 
not think of anything in the way of improvement. 

185. The first reaper. — History records several early attempts 
toward the invention of a machine for harvesting, but none 



138 



FARM MACHINERY 



reached a stage where they were practical until the eighteenth 
century. Pliny describes a machine used early in the first cen- 
tury which stripped the heads of grain from the stalk. The 
machine consisted of a box mounted upon two wheels, with 
teeth to engage the grain at the front end. It was pushed in 
front of an animal yoked behind it. The grain was raked into 
the box by the attendant as the machine was moved along. It 
is further stated that it was necessary to go over the same areas 
several times. 

i86. English development. — There were several attempts at 
the design of a reaping machine before 1806, but none were suc- 
cessful. They need not be considered in this discussion. It was 
in 1806 that Gladstone invented a machine which added many 
new ideas. In his machine the horse walked to the side of the 
grain, and hence the introduction of the side cut. It had a 
revolving cutter and a crude form of guard. It did, however, 
have a new idea in an inside and outside divider. The grain fell 
upon a platform and was cleared occasionally with a hand rake. 
As a whole, this machine was not successful. 

In 1808 Mr. Salmon, of Woburn, invented the reciprocating 
cutter, which acted over a row of stationary blades. This 
machine combined reciprocating and advancing motion for the 
first time. The delivery of the grain 
was unique in the fact that a vertical 
rake actuated by a crank swept the 
grain from the platform upon which 
the grain fell after being cut. 

In 1822, Henry Ogle, a school- 
master of Remington, in connection 
with a mechanic by the name of 
Brown, designed and built a machine 
which is worthy of mention. The 
use of a reciprocating knife had been 
hinted at by Salmon, but Ogle made 
it a success. This machine also had 
the first reel used, and was provided 

FIG. 105 (Kil.E S REAPING . , , ' 

MACHINE (ENGLAND, 1822) With a droppcr. Accouuts are not 
specific, but it is thought that the 
operator for the first time rode upon a seat. 

The next machine was the most successful up to that time 
(1826). Patrick Bell, a minister of Canny ville, Forfarshire, has 




HARVESTING MACHINERY 



139 



the honor of designing it. His machine had oscillating knives, 
each of which were about 15 inches long and about 4 inches 
broad at the back, where they were pivoted and worked over a 
similar set of knives underneath like so many pairs of shears. The 
rear ends of the movable blades were attached to an oscillating 
rod connected with a worm flange on a revolving shaft. It pre- 
sented a new idea in having a canvas moving on rollers just 
behind the cutting mechanism, which carried the grain to one 
side and deposited it in a continuous swath. Bell also provided 
his machine with a reel and inside and outside dividers. His 




FIG. 106 — bell's reaping MACHINE (ENGLAND, 1828) 

machine marks the point when the development of the reaping 
machine was practically turned over to Americans. It never 
was very practical because it was constructed upon wrong prin- 
ciples, but nevertheless it was used in England for several years 
until replaced with machines built after the inventions of the 
Americans, Hussey and ?*lcCormick. 

187. American development. — Beginning with the year 1803. 
a few patents were recorded before Hussey's first patent, which 
was granted December 31, 1833. These were not of any impor- 
tance, since they did not add any new developments and were 
not practical. The only one which gave much encouragement 
was the invention of William Manning, of New Jersey, patented 
in 1831. Manning's machine had a grain divider and a sickle 
which were similar to those used later in the Hussey and McCor- 
mick machines. 

It was in 1833 when Obed Hussey, of Baltimore, Maryland, 
was granted his patent which marks the beginning of a period 



I40 



FARM MACHINERY 



of almost marvelous development. Though Cyrus B. McCor- 
mick was granted his first patent June 2i, 1834, it is claimed that 
his machine was actually built and used before Hussey's, whose 
machine had the priority in the date of patents. 

Hussey's first machine was indeed a very crude affair. It con- 
sisted of a frame carrying the gearing, with a wheel at each 
side and a platform, at the rear. The cutter was attached to a 
pitman, which received its motion from a crank geared to the 




FIG. 107 — hussey's reaping MACHINE (AMERICA, 1833) 



I 



main axle. The cutter worked in a series of fingers or guards, 
and perhaps approached the modern device much closer than any 
reaper had up to this time. 

McCormick's machine was provided with a reel and an outside 
divider. The knife had an edge like a sickle and worked through 



HARVESTING MACHINERY 



141 



wires which acted for the fingers or guards of Hussey's machine. 
The machine was of about 4^/2 feet cut and was drawn by one 
horse. The grain fell upon a platform and was raked to one side 
with a hand rake by a man walking. 

Of the two machines, perhaps Hussey's had the more valuable 
improvement and it was nearer the device which proved to be 
successful later. Friends of both these men claim for them the 
honors for the first successful reaper. Hussey did not have the 
energy and the perseverance, and hence lost in the struggle for 




FIG. 108 — M'cORMICK RE.A.PING MACHINE (aMERICV, 1834) 



supremacy which followed. At first the honors were evenly 
divided. In 1878 McCormick was elected a corresponding mem- 
ber of the French Academy of Sciences upon the ground of his 
"having done more for the cause of agriculture than any other 
living man." 

Palmer and Williams, July i. 1851, obtained a patent for a 
sweep rake which swept the platform at regular intervals, leav- 
ing the grain in bunches to be bound. 

The next invention of importance was that of C. W. and 



142 FARM MACHINERY 

W. W. Marsh, of Illinois. A patent for this was granted 
August 17, 1858, and gave to the world the Marsh harvester. This 
carried two or more attendants, who received the grain from an 
elevator and bound it into sheaves. The two Marsh brothers, 
in connection with J. T. Hollister, organized a company which 
built 24 machines in 1864 and increased the output each year 
until in 1870 over 1,000 machines were built. This company was 
finally merged into the Deering Harvester Company. 

George H. Spaulding invented and was granted a patent on 
the packer for the modern harvester, May 31, 1870. This inven- 
tion was soon made use of by all manufacturers. John P. 
Appleby developed the packer and added a self-sizing device. 
He has also the honor of inventing the first successful twine 
knotter. The Appleby knotter, in a more or less modified form, 
is used on almost every machine to-day. 

Jonathan Haines, of Illinois, patented, March 27, 1849, a ma- 
chine for heading the grain and elevating it into wagons driven 
at the side of the machine. 

In certain parts of the West, notably California, where con- 
ditions are such that grain will cure while standing in the field, 
a combined machine has been built which cuts, threshes, sep- 
arates, and sacks the grain as it is drawn along either by horses 
or by a traction engine. The first combined machine was built 
in 187s by D. C. Matteson. Benjamin Holt has done much to 
perfect the machine. The development of the grain harvester 
may be summarized as follows : 

Gladstone was the first to have a side-cut machine. 

Ogle added the reel and receiving platform. 

Salmon gave the cutting mechanism, which was improved by Bell, 
Hussey, and McCorniick. 

To Rev. Patrick Bell must be given credit for the reel and side- 
delivery carrying device. 

Obed Hussey gave that which is so important, the cutting ap- 
paratus. 

For the automatic rake credit must be given to Palmer and 
Williams. 

For a practical hand-binding machine the Marsh brothers 
should have the honor. 

To Spaulding and Appleby the world is indebted for the sizing, 
packing, and tying mechanisms. 

Jonathan Haines introduced the header. 

Many other handy and important details have been added by a 
multitude of inventors, but all cannot be mentioned. 



HARVESTING MACHINERY 



U3 



i88. The self-rake reaper. — The modern self-rake re- 
sembles the early machine very much, and improvement 
has taken place only along- the line of detail. The machine 
has a platform in the form of a quarter circle, to which 
the grain is reeled l)y tlie rakes, as well as removed to 
one side far enough to permit the machine to pass on the 
next round. The cutting mechanism is like that of the 




FIG. 109 — A MODERN SELF-RAKE REAPER 

harvester. The machine is used to only a limited extent 
owing to the fact that the grain must be bound by hand. 
The reaper is preferred by some in the harvesting of 
certain crops, like buckwheat and peas. It is usually 
made in a 5-foot cut, and can be drawn by two horses, 
cutting six to eight acres a day. 



MODERN HARVESTER OR BINDER 

189, The modern self-binding harvester consists essen- 
tially of (i) a drive wheel in contact with the ground; 



144 



FARM MACHINERY 



(2) gearing to distribute the power from the driver to 
the various parts ; (3) the cutting mechanism of the ser- 
rated reciprocating knife, driven by a pitman from a 




FIG. 1 10 — A MODERN SELF-BINDING HARVESTER OR BINDER 

crank, and guards or fingers to hold the grain while being 
cut; (4) a reel to gather the grain and cause it to fall in 
form on the platform; (5) an elevating system of endless 




FIG. Ill — ANOTHER MODERN HARVESTER 



webs or canvases to carry the loose grain to the binder; 
and (6) a binder to form the loose grain into bundles and 
tie with twine. 



HARVESTING MACHINERY I45 

Some of the more important features and individual 
parts will now be discussed in regard to construction and 
adjustment. Parts are numbered to correspond with 
numbers in Figs, iio and iii. 

190. Canvases (i) Should be provided with tighteners by 
which they may be loosened when not in use. Tighteners 
also make it more convenient to put canvases on the 
machine. The elevator rollers should be driven from the 
top, thus placing the tight side next to the grain. The 
creeping of canvases is due to one of two things, either 
the canvases are not tight enough or the elevator frame 
is not square. If the elevator is not square, the slats will 
be torn from the canvases. This trouble may be over- 
come by measuring across the rollers diagonally or 
placing a carpenter's square in the corner between guide 
and roller, and adjusting. The method of adjustment 
varies with different makes, but the lower elevator is 
usually adjusted with a brace rod to the frame, and the 
upper elevator with a slot in the casting attaching the 
guide to the pipe frame. 

191. Elevator chains (2). — Two kinds of chains are found 
in use, the steel chain and the malleable. The steel chain 
is claimed to be the most durable, but has the disadvan- 
tage of causing the sprocket teeth to cut away faster. 
This wear is often the greatest upon the driving sprocket, 
as it has the most work to do. It is thought that the steel 
chain is the most desirable chain to have. 

192. The chain tightener (3). — The chain tightener may 
have a spring or slot adjustment. The spring adjustment 
is very handy and an even tension is maintained on the 
chain. The elevator chain should not be run with more 
tension than needed, as it produces wear and adds to the 
draft. 

193. Twine box (4). — The location of the twine box is 



146 FARM MACHINERY 

the principal thing to be considered in order to secure 
the greatest convenience in watching the twine, and also 
in adding new balls. 

194. Reel (5). — Convenience and strength are the prin- 
cipal things to be considered in a selection of a reel. It 
should have the greatest range of adjustment and permit 
this adjustment to be made easily. The making of a good 
bundle and the handling of lodged grain depend largely 
upon the manipulation of the reel. This may mean that 
the reel must be adjusted several times during a single 
round of a field. 

The reel slats or fans should be adjusted to clear the 
dividers equally at each end, and also to travel parallel 
to the cutter bar. 

195. Grain dividers (6). — It is an advantage to have the 
outside divider adjustable not only for different-sized 
grain, but also for making the machine narrow when 
mounted upon the transport trucks. 

196. Grain wheel (7). — The weakpointof thegrain wheel 
is the bearing, and it is often necessary to replace the 
axle and boxings several times during the life of a 
machine. In order to prolong the life of the grain-wheel 
axle, it is made, by some manufacturers, with a roller 
bearing. 

197. Elevators (8). — The elevator should extend well to 
the front of the platform in order that the grain may not 
be hindered in the least in starting upon its path up the 
elevator. The guides should be hollowed out slightly on 
the side next the grain, giving the canvases a chance to 
expand and not drag heavily upon the guides. It is also 
an advantage to have the lower end of the upper guide 
flexible in order that it may pass over extra large bunches 
of grain. The open elevator, permitting the handling of 
long grain, as rye, is now almost universally adopted. 



HARVESTING MACHINERY I47 

The sprockets by which the elevator rollers are driven 
should always be in line. Adjustment may be made by 
sighting across their face. 

198. Deck (9). — The steeper the deck, the better; but 
makers have made it rather flat in order to reduce the 
height of the machine. The deck should be well covered 
by the packers to prevent clogging. 

199. Main frame (lo). — Main frames are shipped either 
separate or fastened to the platform. In the latter case, 
if there is a joint, it is riveted and very seldom gives any 
trouble in becoming loose. In the first case, bolts must 
be used ; but they do not give any trouble if care is used 
in assembling the binder. 

200. Platform (ii). — The platform is now universally 
provided with an iron bottom, which is more durable and 
smoother for the platform canvas to pass over. It is 
made of painted iron, and it might be improved if it 
should be made of galvanized iron, as it often rusts out 
before the machine is worn out. 

201. Main wheel (12). — Themainwheelisoneof theparts 
which usually outwear the rest of the machine. The 
tendency is now to make the main wheel too small. The 
larger wheel is more desirable, as it carries the load better 
and is able to give a greater driving power. Main wheels 
have now attained a standard size of 34 and 36 inches 
in the side-cut machine. The steel wheel is now used 
almost universally, the wooden wheel and the wooden- 
rimmed wheel having gone out of use entirely. Three 
types of spokes are used : the hairpin, the spoke cast in 
the hub, and the spoke fastened to a flange of the hub 
with nuts. The main wheel shaft or axle should be pro- 
vided with roller bearings, and also a convenient and sure 
method of oiling. The bolt in the lower part of the quad- 
rant should always be in place. When the bolt is out 



148 FARM MACHINERY 

it is possible to run the machine up too far and let the 
main axle start into the quadrants crosswise. 

202. Main drive chain (13). — Two common types of drive 
chains are to be found upon the market : the all-malleable 
link and the malleable link with the steel pin. The lat- 
ter is perhaps the more desirable, but not so handy for 
replacing broken links. The main chain should not pass 
too close to the tire of the main wheel, or it will clog with 
mud badly. 

203. Cutterbar(i4). — Twokinds of cutter bars are found, 
the Z bar and the angle bar. One seems to be as good 
as the other, but some little difference is to be found be- 
tween the angle given to the guards, enabling some 
machines to cut closer to the ground than others. 

204. Main drive shaft (15) . — The main drive shaft should 
be given good clearance from the main wheel to prevent 
clogging. This shaft is now generally provided with 
roller bearings, and often self-aligning bearings, which 
prevent any possible chance for the shaft to bind and 
thus increase the friction. 

205. Butter or adjuster (16). — The canvas butter has 
always been very satisfactory, except it was short- 
lived. Often it was the first part of the binder to be re- 
placed. This led several makers to build an adjuster 
which had oscillating parts or board. The single board 
seems to be just as satisfactory, as the upper half- of the 
two-board adjuster does very little good. The all-steel 
belt as now commonly used upon push binders is no 
doubt the most satisfactory butter made. It is durable 
and efficient, but not generally adopted, probably on ac- 
count of its cost. 

206. Packers (17). — The packers should practically cover 
the deck, reaching within an inch or so of the deck roller. 
This will prevent any tendency to clog in heavy grain. 



HARN'ESTING MACIIINKRY I49 

The third packer is considered an advanta<je, but is not 
generally adopted. 

207. Main gear (i8). — Consideral^le difference is to l)e 
noticed in different binders in the size of the gearing used. 
It is true that many makers are not liberal enough with 
material in the construction of the main gear wheels. 

208. Bundle carriers ( 19). — Two general types of bundle 
carriers are to be found in use. In one the fingers swing 
back when depositing the load, while in the other the 
carrier is simply tipped down at the rear and the load of 
bundles allowed to slide off. The swinging bundle carrier 
scatters the bundles quite badly. While the other does 
not have this fault, it does not work so well in hilly 
countries, because in going downhill the bundles refuse 
to slide from the carrier, and in going uphill they will not 
stay on the carrier. 

209. Tension (20) . — The roller tension, introduced a few 
years ago, is without doubt the best device of the kind 




FIG. 112 — A ROLLER TENSION FOR THE TWINE. A VERY SATISFACTPRY 

DEVICE 

yet invented. The twine will not be caught at knots, 
kinks will not be formed, and the tension is always even 
independent of the size of the twine. 



150 FARM MACHINERY 

The tension should not be used to produce tight bun- 
dles. It should be used only to keep the twine from play- 
ing" out too fast. 

210. Binder attachment (21). — The mechanism which ties 
the bundle is usually spoken of as the binder attachment. 
The first binder attachment depended upon a train of 
gear wheels to transmit the power to the needle and the 
knotter mechanism. At least one binder still retains this 
feature, while others have adopted the shaft and bevel 
gears, a chain and sprockets, or a lever in some form or 
other. Each binder, however, seems to be satisfactory 
in this particular. The levers have perhaps a disadvan- 
tage in that a very slight wear produces a marked efifect 
upon the adjustment of the parts. The clutch is one of 
the important features of a binder attachment and per- 
haps demands of the expert more attention than any 
other one part of the binder. If the attachment stops 
before a bundle is made, even though it may be for but a 
short time, the action would indicate something to be 
wrong with the clutch. The binder attachment is driven 
directly from the crank shaft in some makes and in others 
by the elevator chain. The former method is to be pre- 
ferred, as it relieves the elevator chain of part of its work. 

211. Knotter (22).— A'he term knotter is applied to the 
knotter hook or the part on which the knot is produced, 
and also to the entire mechanism making the knot, in- 
cluding frame, knotter hook or bill, knotter pinion, knife, 
disk, gear, etc. (See Fig. 113.) 

The knotter has been changed but little since it was 
first introduced by Appleby. The worm gears have to 
some extent been replaced by cam motion, which is more 
adjustable. Simplicity of. parts may or may not be an 
advantage. An adjustable device to drive the twine disk, 
for instance, is often a great advantage. A stripper to 



n 



HARVI'STING MACHINERY 



151 



carry the twine from the knotter hook has proved more 
reliable than to depend upon the twine being pulled from 
the knotter hook by the bundle. 

212. Adjustment. — It seems impossible to take uj) the 
adjustment of the binder in the light of experting in this 
treatise. However, there are a few misadjustments of 




FIG. 113 — A TWINE DISK. A KNOTTER COMPLETE — A KNOTTER HOOK 

common occurrence, and often resulting in loss of dollars 
to the user of the machine, which may be taken up here. 

1. A loose main drive chain permits the chain to ride 
the teeth of the sprocket and slip down the teeth, giving 
the machine a jerky motion, as if some part was catching 
and stopping the machine. A dry or muddy chain aids 
in giving this effect. 

2. If the slats are torn from canvases, the elevators 
are not square or the rollers are not parallel to eaqh other. 
The method of putting elevators in square has been ex- 
plained. 

3. If the main gear cuts badly and wears rapidly, 
either the gears do not mesh properly or the elevator 
chain is too tight. 

4. The knotter hook will not work properly unless 
smooth and free from rust. It can be polished with fine 
emery paper. 

5. The binder attachment will not do its work prop- 



152 FARM MACHINERY 

erly unless limed. By this is meant the adjustment of 
each part so it will do its share at the proper time. Marks 
are placed on the teeth of gear wheels and sprockets to 
enable them to be properly timed. Some binders are 
timed in as many as five places. 

6. The knotter pinion must fit to the tyer wheel, and 
there must not be any lost motion. The tyer wheel, or 
cam wheel, may be set up against the knotter pinion, but 
if worn the knotter pinion must be replaced. If the 
knotter hook does not turn far enough to close the finger 
on the twine, a knot will not be tied. 
. 7. If the cord holder does not hold twine tight 
enough, the twine will be pulled out before the knot is 
made. It should require a force of about 40 pounds to 
pull the twine from the disk. Adjustment is made with 
the cord-holder spring. 

8. If the disk does not move far enough, the knotter 
hook will grasp only one cord ; hence a loose band with a 
knot on one end. 

9. If the needle does not carry the twine far enough, 
the hook will grasp only one cord, and hence a loose band 
with a loose knot. The travel of the needle is adjusted 
by the length of the pitman. The needle may become 
bent, as it is made of malleable iron, but it will permit of 
being hammered back into form. 

10. If the knife is dull, it may pull the twine from the 
hook before the knot is made. 

11. The compress spring relieves the strain on the 
machine when the needle compresses the bundle. It 
should never be screwed down until dead in an effort to 
make larger bundles. 

12. The bundle-sizer spring — not the tension or 
compress spring — should be used to make tight 
bundles. 



HARVESTING MACHINERY I 53 

13. Good oil shoukl he used and all holes kept open. 
In setting up new machines, kerosene should be used to 
loosen up the paint. 

14. Any difficulty must be traced to its source, and 
adjustment should not be made haphazard in hope of 
finding the trouble. 

213. The transport truck. — When it is necessary to 
move the binder from place to place, it is mounted upon 
transport trucks, which facilitate its transportation 
through gates and over bridges. The trucks are set under 
the machine by raising the machine to its maximum 
height and then lowering it to the trucks. The tongue is 
then removed and attached at the end of the platform 
beside or through the grain wheel. Some transports are 
more handy to attach than others. 

214. The tongue truck. — Owing to the weight on the 
tongue and the fact that the team cannot be well placed 
directly in front of the machine to prevent side draft, the 
use of tongue trucks has become popular, especially on 
the wide-cut machine. Their use is to be commended, 
for not only is the work made easier for the horses, but 
it permits four horses to be hitched abreast. 

215. Width of cut. — Binders vary in the width of cut 
or swath from 5 to 8 feet. The 6-foot machine is the 
common size to be used with three horses, the harvesting 
of lo to 15 acres being an average day's work. The 
7- and 8-foot machines are used in localities growing 
lighter crops and require four horses. 

216. Draft of binders. — The following results were ob- 
tained during the season of 1906 at Iowa State College 
from testing a McCormick and a Deering binder cutting 
oats. The ground in both cases was dry and firm. 

McCormick 6-foot : Average of three tests. .. .316 pounds 
Deering 6-foot: " " " ... .312 pounds 



154 



FARM MACHINERY 



217. The header is a machine arranged to cut the stand- 
ing grain very high, leaving practically all of the straw 
in the field. The cutting and reeling mechanisms of the 
header are much like those of the harvester, but the 
machine differs decidedly in the manner of hitching the 
teams for propelling it. It is pushed ahead of the horses 
and guided from the rear by a rudder wheel. The headed 
grain is carried by canvases up an elevator and deposited 
in a wagon with a large box drawn along beside the 
machine. The header usually cuts a wide swath from 14 




THE MODERN HEADER 



to 20 feet, and requires 4 to 6 horses to operate it. With 
it, 20 to 40 acres may be harvested in a day. An attach- 
ment is sometimes placed upon the header to bind the cut 
grain into bundles, in which case the grain is cut lower. 
This attachment must necessarily be very highly geared, 
but does very satisfactory work. A machine with a binder 
attachment is called a header binder. 

218. The combined harvester and thresher is a thresh- 
ing machine with a harvesting mechanism at the side 
which conveys the headed grain from a wide swath di- 
rectly to the thresher cylinder. The cutting and ele- 
vating machinery is much like that of the header, and the 



HARVESTING MACHINERY T55 

threshing machine is of the usual type. It is to be men- 
tioned that this machine can he used only where the 
grain will cure while standing in the field, and where the 
climate provides a dry season for the harvest. These 
machines have an enormous capacity, harvesting and 
threshing up to loo acres or to 2,500 bushels of grain a 
day. The swath varies from 18 to 40 feet. The power 



i^^^f^Na 


- 






I 


JlKISfiEHiBiS 


^ 





FIG. 115 — THE COMBINED HARVESTER AND THRESHER OPERATED BY STEAM 

POWER 

may be furnished either by horses or a traction engine. 
From 24 to 36 horses or mules are required to furnish the 
power. All the horses or mules are under the control of 
a pair of leaders driven by lines. Following the leaders 
there are usually two sets of four, and the remainder of 
the animals are arranged in sets of six or eight. In this 
way one man is enabled to drive the entire team. At least 
three other men are required to operate the machine, one 
to have general supervision, one to tilt the cutter bar, and 
one to sew and dump the sacks when they accumulate in 
lots of six or eight. The largest machines are operated 
by steam power. 

CORN HARVESTING MACHINERY 
219. Development. — The corn binder has become in recent 
years a very important tool because farmers have begun to 
realize the true worth of the cornstalk as feed for live stock. 



156 



FARM MACHINERY 



It has been stated by good authorities that 40 per cent of the 
feeding value of the corn lies in the leaves and stalks. To 
let all this g6 to waste is, to say the least, poor economy, but to 
handle the corn crop entirely by hand is so laborious that it was 
not until modern labor-saving tools were developed that the 
saving of the entire crop could be practiced. It is true that the 
ear and the stalk have been used for stock food from the earliest 
time, but the practice was always limited in the corn belt as 
long as hand methods prevailed. 

The earliest tool used for cutting corn was the common hoe, 
and certainly must have been a very awkward tool. Later the 
sickle was made use of in topping the corn, a method by which 
the stalk was cut off above the ear after fertilization had taken 
place. Methods used in an early time for the building of shocks 
or stooks of corn would seem very crude to-day. Often a center 
pole was sunk into the ground and horizontal arms inserted in ■ 
holes in it. Against this the corn was piled until a shock of 
sufficient size was formed, then the arms were withdrawn, finally 
the center pole. The whole was compressed and tied with a 
cornstalk band. Another method used to-day is to tie the tops 
of four hills, forming a saddle against which the corn is piled. 

The corn knife was soon developed, and was first perhaps an 
old scythe blade provided with a handle. The manufactured 
corn knife can now be bought in a variety of shapes and with a 
choice of handles. One style of knife may be fastened to the 
boot, but does not seem to be very successful. 




FIG. 116 — A SLED CORN HARVESTER 



HARVESTING MACHINERY 157 

D. M. Osborn & Co., as early as 1890, presented a corn 
harvester to tlie public. It cut the standing corn and elevated 
it into a wagon drawn beside the machine. The McCormick 
corn binder was soon to follow. It is a striking fact that the 
first McCormick machine was a machine pushed before the 
horses. In 1893 the Deering corn harvester was given a field 




FIG. 117 — THE VERTICAL CORN HARVESTER 

trial, which was claimed to be very successful. To-day there are 
several corn harvesters upon the market. 

220. Sled harvesters. — Many attempts were made follow- 
ing the introduction of the grain binder to build a corn 
harvester, but all resulted in failures. The sled harvester 




FIG. 118 — THE HORIZONTAL CORN HARVESTER 



158 FARM MACHINERY 

was the first successful machine. It consists of a sled plat- 
form or a platform mounted upon small wheels, which car- 
ries knives at an angle to cut the corn as it is grasped by the 
operator, who rides on the platform. The machine is made 
for one horse, with the knives sloping back from the center, 
or for two horses, with the knives sloping from the outside 
to the center. This machine is cheap and has a much larger 
capacity than hand cutting. Heavy corn cannot well be 
handled, however, with a sled harvester. 

221. Types of harvesters. — Corn harvesters may be 
divided into three classes, depending upon the position of 
the bundle while being bound. This may be either in a 
vertical, inclined, or a horizontal position (Figs. 117 and 
118). 

The vertical harvester seems to be the most popu- 
lar, although the other types do very satisfactory 
work. Owing to the difference in the height of corn in 
various parts of the country, some makers provide two 
styles of harvesters, one for short corn and the other 
for tall. 

The binder of the corn harvester resembles very closely 
the binder of the grain harvester. At first they were 
identical, but later it was found best to make the binder 
for the corn harvester a little heavier. The corn harvester 
should be provided with roller bearings and other con- 
veniences of adjustment to be found upon the grain 
binder. 

222. The stubble-cutter attachment consists of a knife 
attached to the corn harvester. It cuts the stubble close 
to the ground and makes further operations in the field 
more convenient. The attachment does not add much to 
the draft of the machine, and is surely a very useful 
device. 

223. The corn shocker was one of the first machines 



HARVESTING MACHINERY 



159 




FIG. 119 — A CORN SHOCKER. THE CORN SHOCK IS COLLECTED ON THE 
PLATFORM AND LIFTED TO THE GROUND AFTER BEING TIED 



l6o FARM MACHINERY 

devised by the early inventors for the handling of the 
corn crop, but it was not presented to the public until 
after the introduction of the corn harvester or binder. It 
resembles the corn harvester in the construction of the 
dividers and the cutting mechanism. Fig. 119 illustrates 
the modern corn shocker. To the rear of the dividers a 
rotating table is placed with a center post. The corn is 
guided by fingers and angle irons to the center of the 
table. As additional stalks are cut they are added to the 
outside until a shock of proper size is formed. The 
machine is stopped and the shock tied with twine. By 
the aid of a windlass and crane the shock is lifted bodily 
from the table and dropped to the ground. When the 
tension on the lifting rope is slacked the arms which en- 
abled the shock to be lifted are released by pawls, so they. 
no longer remain in a horizontal position, but turn down 
as the center post is drawn from the shock. 

The capacity of the corn shocker is only about one-half 
that of the corn harvester. It has the disadvantage that 
only small shocks can be made, which do not stand well 
and blow down easily. Another objection to its use is 
that the corn is more difficult to handle than when bound 
into bundles. There is, however, a saving of twine, and 
the work involved is not so laborious as that of shocking 
corn bundles by hand. 

224. Loading devices. — The past few years have wit- 
nessed the introduction of several devices for loading 
corn fodder, hay, manure, etc. The machine usually con- 
sists of a crane or derrick with a horse lift by which a 
fork large enough to handle an entire shock is brought 
into action. 

225. Corn pickers. — There have been many attempts to 
make a corn picker which would pick the ears from the 
standing stalk. For many years these attempts resulted 



HARVESTING MACHINERY 



l6l 



in failures. However, the present scarcity of farm labor 
and the liberal prices paid for the picking of corn have 
again encouraged many inventors to spend time and 
money upon a machine of this kind. During the recent 
seasons several makes of corn pickers have been tried, 
with more or less success. Without any doubt, it is only 
a question of time until a practical machine may be had. 

Two general types of corn pickers are to be found : the 
corn picker proper and the corn picker-husker. The for- 
mer does not attempt to husk the ears, but simply to 
remove the ears from the stalk. However, in this opera- 




FIG. 120 — THE CORN PICKER-HUSKER 



tion a large portion of the husks are removed from the 
ear. The remaining husks do not greatly interfere with 
the feeding or shelling of the corn. 

The other type is provided with husking rolls, which 
remove the husks before the ears are elevated into a 
wagon drawn beside the machine. 



1 



CHAPTER VIII 

HAYING MACHINERY 

The introduction of modern haying machinery has 
wrought almost the same change in the harvesting of the 
hay crop as harvesting machinery has in the harvesting 
of the small-grain crop. The labor involved under present 
conditions in the cutting, curing, and storing of a ton 
of hay is but a small fraction of what it was under the 
old system of hand methods. 

The hay crop ranks third in value among our crops. 
The addition of several new plants has greatly increased 
the value of the hay crop. This is especially true of 
alfalfa and brome grass, which have proved to be very 
valuable hay crops. The practice of curing grass for 
forage was in vogue before written history was begun. 
The first tools were as crude as possible. To-day we have 
a very complete line of hay tools for all conditions of 
work. 

THE MOWER 

226. The mower. — The development of the mower has been 
traced by M. F. Miller in the "Evolution of Harvesting Machin- 
ery,"* a bulletin published by the United States Department of 
Agriculture, and we are pleased to quote as follows : 

"In the early development of the mower it was so intimately 
connected with the reaper that a little space should here be 
devoted to a short review of its history. Hussey's first machine 
was really a mower, and it was upon this principle that the 
mower was afterward built. Many of the early machines con- 

* Bulletin No. 103, Office of Experiment Stations. 



iiAYiNc. ArArniNKRY 163 

tallied combinations of the mower and the reaper, and were used 
with a little adjustment to cut either grain or grass. A name 
that stands out prominently in the development of mowers is 
that of William F. Kctchum, who lias sometimes been spoken 




FIG. 121 — KETCHUM's mower (AMERICA, 1847) 

of as the father of the mower trade, since he was the first to put 
mowers on the market as a type of machine distinct from the 
reaper. He took out several patents, but the one granted July 10, 
1847. was of especial importance. The main features of this 
patent were the unobstructed space left between the driving 
wheel and the finger bar, with its support, and the remarkable 
simplicity of the machine. The cutter was an endless chain of 
knives, which never became successful, but which caused some 
excitement at the time. Ketchum afterward adopted the Hussey 
type of cutter and produced a very successful mower of the 
rigid-bar type. It was this machine that led the way in mower 
development and became the first really practical machine. . . . 

"The first invention showing the feature of a flexible bar was 
that of Hazard Knowles, the machinist of the Patent Office at 
Washington. It showed many valuable features of a reaping 
machine also, but no patent was taken out. The patent granted 
to Cyrenus Wheeler, December 5, 1854, marks the division be- 
tween the two types of machines. Wheeler was a practical man, 
and, like McCormick in the development of the reaper, sue- 



164 - FARM MACHINERY 

ceeded in combining so many important features in his machines 
as to give him a place as one of the foremost pioneers in the 
development of the mower. The machine of 1854 was not a suc- 
cess as constructed, but the features of two drive wheels and 
a cutter bar jointed to the main wheels were lasting. . . . 

"On July 17. 1856, a patent was granted to Cornelius Aultman 
and Lewis Miller containing principles that still exist in all 
successful mowers. The first patent claimed 'connecting the 
cutter bar to the machine by the double-rule joint or the double- 
jointed coupling pin.' It was reissued to cover an arrangement 
for holding up the bar while moving, and the combination of 
ratchet-wheel pawl and spring. On May 4, 1858, Lewis Miller 
took out a patent on a mower that combined the features of 
the former machine with some new principles. It contained 
all the elements of the successful modern two-wheeled machine, 
and mower development since that time has been a perfecting 
of this type. This machine was built under the name of the 
'Buckeye,' and, with a substitution of metal for certain wooden 
parts, and certain other improvements, it is in use to-day. 
E. Ball, associated with this firm, also made valuable improve- 
ments in mowers. In 1856 a patent was granted to A. Kirby 
covering improvements made by him a few years previous, and 
his machines soon became popular. Others took up the manu- 
facture of mowers at this early date, so that by i860 the mower 
had become a thoroughly practical machine, and was being 
improved by various firms throughout the country. This im- 
provement has gone on with the many makes of machines now 
in existence, and to-day we have various forms, from the single 
one-horse machine to the large two-horse type, with its long 
cutter bar, running with as light a draft as the former clumsy 
machine did with a cut but half as wide. As a result of this 
development the amount of hay produced in the United States 
has increased enormously, and to-day it stands as one of the 
most important crops." 

MODERN MOWERS 

227. Types. — Modern mowing machines are of two 
types, the side-cut mower and the direct-cut mower. The 
cutter bar of the former is placed at one side of the drive 



% 



HAYING MACHINERY 



165 



wheels or truck, while in the latter it is placed directly in 
front of the drivers. The mower consists essentially in 
(i) the cutting mechanism, comprising- a reciprocating 
knife or sickle operated through guards or fingers and 
driven by a pitman from a crank, (2) driver wheels in 
contact with the ground, (3) gearing to give the crank 
proper speed, and (4) dividers to divide the cut grass 
from the standing. 

228. The one-horse mower is usually a smaller size of 
the two-horse machine, fitted with shafts or thills instead 
of ? tongue. It is made in sizes of 3>4- or 4-foot cut, and 
is used principally in the mowing of lawns, parks, etc. 

229. The two-horse mower is commonly made in 4^- 
ahd 5-foot cuts, although 6-, 7-, and 8-foot machines are 




FIG. 122 — A MODERN TWO-HORSE MOWER 



manufactured. The latter are spoken of as wide-cut 
mowers and are usually of heavier construction than the 
standard machines (Fig. 122). From 8 to 15 acres is an 
average day's work with the 5- or 6-foot machines. 

230. Mower frame. — Mower frames are usually made 
in one piece of cast iron. The openings for the axle and 



l66 FARM MACHINERY 

the shafting are cored out, but where the bearings are to 
be located enough extra material is provided for boring 
out to size. Roller bearings are usually provided for the 
main axle. 

231. The crank shaft is usually provided with a plain 
bearing at the crank and a roller bearing at the pinion 
end. A ball bearing is provided at the end of the small 
bevel pinion to take the end thrust. It is not possible to 
use a ball or roller bearing at the crank end, due to the 
vibratory action of the shaft tending to wear the bearing 
out of round. This bearing is either provided with an 
adjustment or an interchangeable brass bushing to take 
up the wear. The crank should be well protected from 
the front and under sides. The crank and pitman motion 
seems to be the most satisfactory device to transmit a 
reciprocating motion to the knife. A wobble gear was 
tried a few years ago, but has been given up. A mower 
is manufactured with a pitman taking the motion from 
the face of the crank wheel instead of the side. It is not 
known how successful this machme is. 

232. Main gears. — The driving gears should be liberal 
in size and always closed in such a way as to be protected 
from dust, and also to facilitate oiling. It might be an 
advantage in mowers as in some other machines to have 
the gears run in oil. 

233. Wheels should be high and have a good width of 
tire. The common height is 32 inches, and 3^ and 4 
inches the common width of tire. It is some advantage to 
have several pawls to engage the ratchet teeth in the 
wheels, because this feature, in connection with a clutch 
with several teeth for throwing the machine in and out of 
gear, will make the machine more positive in its action. 
That is, the sickle will start to move very shortly after 
the main wheels are set in motion. Mowers driven by 



I 



HAYING MACIIINKRY 1 67 

large gear wheels in the drive wheels are more positive 
in their action and hence are preferred in foreign coun- 
tries where very heavy swaths are to be cut. 

234. The pitman in the mower corresponds to the con- 
necting rod in an engine. Its function is to change cir- 
cular motion into rectilinear motion, the reverse of the 
connecting rod. The crank pin and sickle should always 
be at right angles with each other, but this feature is not 
so essential when the pitman is connected to the sickle 
with a ball-and-socket joint. 

Pitmans are made of wood and steel. Wood rods are 
the most reliable, because steel, due to the excessive 
vibration, becomes crystallized and weak. The steel pit- 
man, however, may be so constructed as to be adjustable, 
and enables the operator to adjust the length until the 
knife acts equally over the guards at each end of the 
stroke. The pitman should be protected from being 
struck by any obstruction from the front. 

235. The cutter bar is the cutting mechanism, exclusive 
of the sickle. It has a hinge coupling at one end and a 
divider and grass board at the other. The bar proper to 
which the guards are bolted should be stiff enough to 
prevent sagging. It is the practice in some machines to 
make the bar bowed down slightly and to straighten it by 
carrying the greater part of the weight at the hinge end, 
the weight of the bar itself causing it to straighten. 

Some arrangement should be provided to take up the 
wear of the pins of the hinge joints in order that the 
cutter bar may be kept in line with the pitman. 

236. Wearing plates. — Best mowers are now equipped 
with wearing plates where the sickle comes in contact 
with the cutter bar. They may be renewed at a small 
cost. The clips to hold the sickle in place are now made 
of malleable iron and are bolted in place to facilitate 



l68 FARM MACHINERY 

their replacement when worn. If slightly worn, they may 
be hammered down until the proper amount of play be- 
tween the clip and the sickle is obtained. Under normal 
conditions, this is about i/ioo of an inch. In no case 
should it be so open as to permit grass to wedge under 
the clips, but at all times should hold the knife well upon 
the ledger plates so as to give the proper shearing action. 

237. Mower guards are fitted with two kinds of ledger 
plates, one with a smooth edge and the other with a 
serrated edge. The serrated plate holds fine grasses to 
better advantage than the smooth ledger plate, and in this 
way aids with the cutting. 

238. Shoes. — The cutter bar should be provided with 
an adjustable shoe at each end, by means of which the 
height of cut may be varied to some extent. A weed at- 
tachment is often provided which will enable the cutter 
bar to be raised 10 inches or more. A shoe is better than 
a small wheel at the outer end of the bar because the 
wheel will drop into small holes, while the runner will 
bridge them. 

239. The grass board. — The purpose of the grass board 
and the grass stick is to rake the grass away from the 
edge of the sWath to give a clean place for the inside shoe 
the next round. The grass board should be provided with 
a spring to make it more flexible and less apt to be broken 
in backing and turning. 

240. Foot lifts. — Nearly all modern mowers are now 
provided with a foot lift, which enables the operator to 
lift the cutter bar over obstructions, and also makes 
easier work for the team by lifting the bar while turning. 
A spring is necessary to aid in the lifting. 

Certain mowers, known as vertical lift mowers, permit 
the cutter bar to be lifted to a vertical position by a lever, 
to pass obstructions, and at the same time the mower is 



HAYING MACHINERY 169 

automatically thrown out of gear. When the bar is 
lowered the mower is as^ain put in gear. 

241. Draft connections. — The hitch on mowers is 
usually made low and below the tongue. A direct con- 
nection is sometimes made to the drag bar with a draft 
rod. This is styled a draw cut, and may have some ad- 
vantage in applying the power more directly to the point 
where it is used. 

242. Troubles with mowers. — If a mower fails to cut 
the grass and leave a clean stubble, there may be several 
things wrong: (i) the knife or sickle may be dull; (2) it 
may not fit well over the ledger plates, losing the advan- 
tages of a shear cut; (3) the knife may not register, or, in 
other words, it travels too far in one direction and not 
far enough in the other. The first of these troubles may 
be remedied by grinding, the second by adjusting the 
clips on top of the knife. There should be but a very 
slight clearance under these clips, and the exact amount 
has been given as i/ioo inch. To make the knife register 
in some makes, the pitman must be adjusted, while in 
others the yoke must be adjusted. If the mower leaves a 
narrow strip of grass uncut, it indicates that one of the 
guards has been bent down, a common thing to happen 
to mowers used in stony fields. Mower guards are now uni- 
versally made of malleable iron and may be hammered into 
line with a few sharp blows with a hammer. The guards 
may be lined up by raising the cutter bar and sighting 
over the ledger plates and along the points of the guards. 

243. A windrowing attachment consists in a set of 
curved fingers attached to the rear of the cutter bar, 
which rolls the swath into a windrow. It is useful in cut- 
ting clover, peas, and buckwheat. The attachment may 
be used as a bunchcr with the addition of fingers to hold 
the swath until tripped. 



170 



FARM MACHINERY 




FIG. 123 — A VVINDROWING ATTACHMENT FOR A MOWER. IT MAY ALSO BE 
USED AS A BUNCHER 

244. Knife grinder. — The knife grinder is a handy tool 
which may be attached to a mower wheel or to a bench. 




FIG. 124 — A SlCKl.E UK MOWER KNIFE GRINDER 



II 



HAYING MACHINERY 



171 



It is used for sharpening the mower knives. Usually it 
has a double-beveled emery wheel which will L;rind two 
sections of the knife at the same time. The emery wheel 
is given a high rotative speed by means of gearing or 
sprocket wheels and chain (Fig. 124). 



RAKES 

245. Development. — The introduction of the mower created 
a demand for something better and with a greater capacity than 
the ordinary hand rake. As long as hand methods prevailed in 
the cutting of the grasses there was little need for anything 
better than the hand rake. The first horse rake was revolving. 
It did very satisfactory work when carefully handled. But later 
in the steel tooth rake there was found a much better tool. To 
Walter A. Wood Company, of Hoosick Falls, New York, is 
given the credit for bringing out the first spring-tooth rake. 
Differing from the modern tool, it was made almost entirely 
of wood except the teeth. The early rakes were dumped entirely 
by hand, but later an internal ratchet was provided on the 
wheels, which engaged a latch operated by the foot, and which 
carried the rake teeth up and over, thus dumping the load. 
The early rakes were almost universally provided with thills. 




FIG. 125 — A STEEL SELF-DUMP RAKE FOR TWO HORSES. THE TONGUE MAY 

BE SEPARATED INTO THILLS FOR ONE HORSE. THE TEETH 

HAVE ONE COIL AND CHISEL POINTS 



172 FARM MACHINERY 

Finally arrangements were made whereby the thills could be 
brought together and a tongue made for the use of a team 
instead of one horse. 

246. The steel dump rake or sulky rake. — Althotigh the 
first rakes were made of wood, there are now upon the 
market rakes made almost entirely of steel. The rake 
head to which the teeth are fastened is usually made of a 
heavy channel bar with a minimum of holes punched 
through it so as not to impair its strength. 

In the selection of a rake considerable variance is 
offered in the choice of teeth, which may be constructed 
of 7/16-inch or i/2-inch round steel, may have one or 
two coils at the top, be spaced 3^2 inches to 5 inches 
apart, and have either pencil or flat points. The 
choice depends somewhat upon the kind of hay to be 
raked. 

The rake is always provided with a set of cleaner teeth 
to prevent the hay from being carried up with the teeth 
when the rake is dumped. The outside teeth are some- 
times provided with a projection which prevents the hay 
from being rolled into a rope and scattered out at the 
ends when the hay is very light. Sometimes an extra 
pair of short teeth is provided to prevent this rolling. 

247. Self-dump rakes are always provided with a lever 
for hand dumping. Rakes are made from 8 to 12 feet in 
width. In the purchase of a rake the important things 
to look for are ease in operation, strength of rake head 
and wheels. Often the wheels are the first to give way. 
Some wheels are very bad about causing the hay to wrap 
about the hub. The wheel boxes should be interchange- 
able so they may be replaced when worn. 

248. Side-delivery rakes. — The side-delivery rake was 
brought about by the introduction of the hay loader, the 
loader creating a demand for a machine which would 



HAYING MACHINERY 



173 



place the hay in a light windrow. The first of these ma- 
chines was manufactured by Chambers, Bering, Quinlan 
Company, of Decatur, Illinois. 

249, One-way rakes. — Practically all of these machines 
consist of a cylinder mounted obliquely to the front. They 
carry flexible steel-wire fingers, which revolve under and 
to the front. These fingers roll the hay ahead, and also 




FIG. 126 — ONE-;'AY SIDE-DELIVERY R.^KE 

to one side. Some variance is to be found in the methods 
employed to drive the cylinder. Both gears and chain- 
and-sprocket drives are used. 

250. Endless apron, reversible rakes. — There are other 
machines upon the market with a carrier or endless 
apron upon which the hay is elevated by a revolving cyl- 
inder and carried to either side. This machine does very 
satisfactory work and will place in one windrow as many 
as six swaths of the mower. By manipulation of the 
clutch driving the apron, this machine may be made to 
deposit the hay in bunches to be placed in hay cocks or 
loaded to a wagon by a fork. 

The side-delivery rake takes the place of the hay tedder 



174 



FARM MACHINERY 



to a large extent. The method of curing- hay, especially 
clover, by raking into light windrows shortly after being 
mown, has proved very successful. A first-class quality 
of hay is obtained and in an equal length of time. It is 
claimed that if the leaves are prevented from drying up, 
they will aid very greatly in carrying ofif the moisture 
from the stems. Green clover contains about 85 per cent 
of water. When cured, only about 25 per cent is left. 
The leaves draw this moisture from the stems, and if free 
circulation of air is obtained the hay will dry quicker 
than if this outlet of the moisture for the water was cut 




FIG. 127 — THE ENDLESS APRON OR REVERSIBLE SIDE-DELIVERY RAKE 

ofif by letting the leaves dry up. Many of the one-way 
side-delivery rakes may be converted into tedders by re- 
versing the forks and the direction of their movement. 
The standard width for side-delivery rakes is eight feet. 
They are drawn by two horses. 



HAY TEDDERS 

251. Hay tedders. — Where a heavy swath of hay is ob- 
tained, some difficulty is experienced in getting the hay 
thoroughly cured without stirring. To do this stirring 
the hay tedder has been devised. Grasses, when cut with 



HAYING MACIIINF.RY 



175 



a mower, are deposited very smoothly, and the swath 
is packed somewhat to the stubble by the passing of 
the team and mower over it. The office of the tedder 




FIG. 128 — AN EIGHT-FORK HAY TEDDER 



is to reverse the surface and to leave the swath in such 
a loose condition that the air may have free access and 

thus aid in the curing. 

The hay tedder consists 
of a number of arms with 
wire tines or fingers at the 
lower ends. These are fast- 
ened to a revolving crank 
near the middle and to a 
lever at the other end. The 
motion of the cranks causes 
the tines to kick backward 
under the machine, thus 
engaging the mown hay, 

FIG. I29-TYPES OF TEDDER FORKS tOSsiug it Up aud Icaviug it 

WITH COIL AND FLAT RELIEF in a vcrv loosc conditiou. 

SPRINGS. D SHOWS THE SPRING t^, 1" 1 • ^ „^^ 

OF C SPRUNG ^ "^ modern machme, made 




176 



FARM MACHINERY 



almost entirely of steel, is illustrated in Fig. 128. The 
size of tedders is rated by the number of forks. Tedders 
constructed of wood are still upon the market. The fork 
shaft may be driven by a chain or by gearing. 

HAY LOADER 

252. Development. — The hay loader has been upon the 
market for some time, but only during recent years has 
there been any great demand for the tool. The Keystone 
Manufacturing Company, of Sterling, Illinois, began ex- 




KIG. 130 — .^ FORK HAY LO.\DER 



perimenting with the hay loader as early as 1875. The 
machine is designed to be attached to the rear of the 
wagon, to gather the hay and elevate it to a rack on the 
wagon. 



HAYING MACHINERY I77 

253. Fork loader. — In all of the early machines the hay 
was placed upon the elevating apron by tines or forks 
attached to oscillating bars extending up over the load. 
The hay was pushed along this apron by these oscillating 
bars with the tines on the under side. This form of loader 
worked very satisfactorily, but had one disadvantage in 
w^orking in clover and alfalfa. The oscillating bars were 
unsatisfactory, as they shook the leaves out of the hay. 
This led to the introduction of an endless apron, which 
works very satisfactorily in this respect. The loader 
equipped with oscillating forks is of much more simple 
construction than the other type. It also has an advan- 
tage in being able to draw the swath of hay together at 
the top, and force it upon the wagon. Loaders of this 
kind are made without gears by increasing the throw of 
the forks. These machines have not as yet demonstrated 
their advantages. 

254. Endless apron loaders. — The hay is elevated in 
this type of loader on an endless apron or carrier after 
it has been gathered by a gathering cylinder. The main 
advantage of this type of loader is that it does not handle 
the hay as roughly as the fork loaders. This is an im- 
portant feature in handling alfalfa and clover, as there 
is a tendency to shake out many of the leaves, a valual)le 
part of the hay. Due provision must be made, however, 
to prevent the hay from being carried back by the carrier 
returning on the under side. The apron or carrier usually 
passes over a cylinder at the under side, which has teeth 
to aid in starting the hay up the carrier. 

Provision must be made to enable the gathering cylin- 
der to pass over obstructions and uneven ground. For 
this reason the gathering cjdinder is mounted upon a 
separate frame and the whole held to the ground by suit- 
able springs. The loader has a great range of capacity. 



178 



FARM MACHINERY 



All modern machines will load hay from the swath or the 
windrow, and the carrier will elevate large bunches of 
hay without any difficulty. 




FIG. I3I^AN ENDLESS APRON OR CARRIER HAY LOADER 



MACHINES FOR FIELD STACKING 



255. Sweep rakes. — Where a large amount of hay is to 
be stacked in a short time, the sweep rake and the hay 
stacker will do the work more quickly than^ is possible 
by any other means. The sweep rake has straight wooden 
teeth to take the hay either from the swath or windrow, 
and is either drawn between the two horses or pushed 
ahead. When a load is secured the teeth are raised, 



HAYING MACHINERY 



179 



the load hauled and placed upon the teeth of the stacker 
and the rake backed away. 

'inhere are three j^eneral types of sweep rakes: (i) the 
wheelless, with the horses spread to each end of the 




FIG. 132 — A TWO-WHEEL SWEEP RAKE. THE TEETH ARE RAISED BY THE 
DRIVER SHIFTING HIS SEAT 

rake; (2) the wheeled rake, with the horses spread in 
the same manner ; and (3) the three-wheel rake, with the 
horses directly behind the rake and working on a tongue. 




FIG. 133 — A THREE-WHEEL SWEEP RAKE. THE DRIVER IS AIDED IN LIFT- 
ING THE LOADED TEETH BY THE PULL OF THE HORSES 



The latter are the more expensive. They oiTer advan- 
tages in driving the team, but are a little difficult to guide 
(Figs. 132 and 133). 

256. Hay stackers are made in two general types : the 
overshot and the swinging stacker. In the overshot the 



i8o 



FARM MACHINERY 



n 




FIG. 134 — A PLAIN OVERSHOT HAY STACKER 




FIG. 135 — THE SWING HAY STACKER. NOTE THE BRAKE AT THE REAR 
END FOR HOLDING THE ROPE 



HAYING MACHINERY lOI 

teeth carrying the load are drawn up and over and the 
load is thrown directly back upon the stack, the work 
being done with a horse or a team of horses by means of 
ropes and suitable pulleys (Fig. 134). 

The swinging stacker permits the load to be locked in 
place after it has been raised from the ground to any 
height and swung to one side over the stack. When over 
the stack, the load may be dumped and the fork swung 
back and lowered into place. The latter stackers are 
very handy, as they may be used to load on to a wagon. 
They have not as yet been built strong enough to stand 
hard service. 

257. Forks. — A cable outfit may be arranged with a 
carrier and fork for field stacking, the cable being 
stretched between poles and supported with guy ropes. 
This outfit works the same as the barn tools to be de- 
scribed later. Very high stacks may be built by this 
method. 

A single inclined pole may be used in stacking by 
raising the fork load to the top and swinging over the 
stack. This is usually a home-made outfit, with the ex- 
ception of fork and the pulleys. 

BARN TOOLS 

258. Development. — The introduction of the field hay- 
ing tools created a demand for machinery for the unload- 
ing of the load of hay at the barn, and this led to the 
development of a line of carriers and forks, the first of 
which was a harpoon fork, a patent for which was issued 
to E. L. Walfer, September, 1864. In 1873 a Air. Nellis 
patented a locking device, which has given to this fork 
the name of Nellis fork. 

J. E. Porter began the manufacture of a line of carriers 



FARM MACHINERY 




FIG. 136— TYPES OF STEEL AND WOOD HAY CARRIER TRACKS 



HAYING MACHINERY 



183 



and hay tools at Ottawa, Illinois, in 1868. This firm is 
still doing business. P. A. Meyers was another pioneer 
in the hay tool business, and in 1866 patented a double 
track made of two T-bars. In 1887, J. E. Porter placed 
upon the market a solid steel rail. 

259. Tracks. — A large variety of tracks is to be found 
upon the market to-day — the square wooden track, the 
two-piece wooden track, the single-piece inverted T steel 
track, the double steel track made of two angle bars, and 
various forms of single- and double-flange steel tracks. 
Wire cables are used in outdoor work. 

Various forms of track switches and folding tracks are 
to be found upon the market. By means of a switch it is 
possible to unload hay at one point and send it out in 
four different directions. In circular barns it is possible 
to arrange pulleys in such a way that the carrier will be 
carried around a circular track. 

260. Forks are built in a variety of shapes and are 

known as single-harpoon or 
shear fork, double-harpoon 
fork, derrick forks, and four-, 
six-, and eight-tined grapple 
forks. To replace the fork 
for rapid unloading of hay, 





FIG. 137 — A, DOUBLE- HARPOON 
HAY FORK. B, SINGLE-HAR- 
POON HAY FORK 



FIG. 138 — C, A 
GRAPPLE FORK. 
RICK FORK 



FOUR-TINED 
D, A DER- 



1 84 



FARM MACHINERY 



the hay sling is used. The harpoon forks are best 
adapted for the handling of long hay, like timothy. For 
handling clover, alfalfa, and the shorter grasses, the 
grapple and derrick forks are generally used. The der- 
rick fork is a popular style for field stacking in some 
localities. Harpoon forks have fingers which hold the hay 
upon the tines until tripped.. The tines are made in 
lengths varying from 25 to 35 inches, to suit the condi- 
tions. The grapple fork opens and closes on the hay like 
ice tongs. The eight-tined fork is suitable for handling 
manure. 

The hay sling consists of a pair of ropes spread with 
wooden bars and provided with a catch, by which it may 




FIG. 139 — A HAY SUNG. THE SPRING CATCH BY WHICH THE SLING IS 
PARTED IS ABOVE E 



be separated at the middle for discharging a sling load. 
The sling is placed at the bottom of the load, and 
after sufficient hay has been built over it for a sling 
load, another sling is spread between the ends of the 
hay rack and another sling load is built on, and so on. 
Four slings are usually required for an ordinary load ; 
however, the number has been reduced to three, and 
even two. The sling is a rapid device, but is some- 
what inconvenient in the adjusting of the ropes 
and placing in the load. It is very convenient at the 
finish. If the standard sling carrier is used, it is necessary 



HAYING MACHINERY 



1^5 



rack, requiring little hand labor. The most popular 
method at the present time is to use forks to remove all 
the load but one slingful, which is removed by a sling 
placed in the bottom of the load. This method circum- 
vents the necessity of building slings into the load or 
hand labor in cleaning up the load for the fork at the 
finish. If the standard sling carrier is used, it is necessary 




FIG. 140 — A TWO-WAY FORK HAY CARRIER. TO WORK IN THE OPPOSITE 

DIRECTION, THE ROPE IS SIMPLY PULLED THROUGH UNTIL 

THE KNOT ON THE OPPOSITE END IS STOPPED 

BY THE CARRIER 



to use two forks ; however, a special fork and sling carrier 
will permit the use of a single fork. 

261. Carriers. — Carriers are made to suit all of the 
various forms of tracks and are made one-way, swivel, 



i86 



FARM MACHINERY 



^ 



and reversible. In order to work the one-way from both 
ends of a barn it is necessary to take it off the track and 
reverse. The swivel needs only to have the rope turn to 
the opposite direction, while in the reversible the rope 
is knotted at each end, and when it is desired to work 




FIG. 141 — A DOUBLE-CARRIAGE REVERSIBLE SLING CARRIER. DESIGNED FOR 
HEAVY SERVICE 



from the other end of the barn all that is necessary is 
simply to pull the rope through the other way. 

There are numerous devices to be used with 
barn outfits, carrier returns, pulley-changing devices, 
which are very handy, but need only be mentioned 
here. 



HAYING MACHINERY 
BALING PRESSES 



187 



262. Development. — Many patents were granted on baling 
presses during the early half of the past century, indicating the 
rise of the problem of compressing hay into a form in which it 
could be handled with greater facility. It was not, however, 
until 1853 that H. L. Emery, of Albany, N. Y., began the manu- 




FIG. 142 — A LIGHTER SLING CARRIER LOADED WITH A SLING LOAD OF HAY 

facture of hay presses. It is stated that this early machine had 
a capacity of five 250-pound bales an hour and required two 
men and a horse to operate it. It made a bale 24 X 24 X 48 
inches. 

The next man to devote his efiforts toward the development 
of a hay press with any success was P. K. Dederick, who began 
his work about i860. He produced a practical hay press. 



l88 FARM MACHINERY 

George Ertel was the pioneer manufacturer of hay presses in 
the West. His first efforts were in 1866, and from that time he 
devoted practically his entire time to the manufacture of hay 
presses. His first machine was a vertical one operated by horse 
power. Now both steam and gasoline engines are used to 
furnish the power. 

263. Box presses are used very little at present, being 
superseded by the continuous machijies of larger capacity. 
The box press consists in a box through which the 
plunger or compressor acts vertically, power being fur- 
nished either by hand or by a horse. The box, with the 
plunger down, is filled with hay ; the plunger is then 
raised, compressing the hay into, usually, the upper end, 
where it is tied and removed. The machine is then pre- 
pared for another charge. 

264. Horse-power presses are either one-half circle or 
full circle. In the half-circle or reversible-lever presses 



1 




FIG. 143 — A FULL-CIRCLE HORSE HAY PRESS ON TRUCKS FOR 
TRANSPORTATION 

the team pulls the lever to one side and then turns around 
and pulls it to the other side. The hay is placed loose 
in a compressing box, compressed at each stroke and 
pushed toward the open end of the frame, where it is 
held by tension or pressure on the sides. When a bale 
of sufficient length is made a dividing block is inserted 
and the bale tied with wire. 

In the full-circle press the team is required to travel 
in a circle. Usually two strokes are made to one round 



HAYING MACHINERY 



189 



of the team. Various devices or mechanisms are used to 
obtain power for the compression. It is desired that the 
motion be fast at the beginning of the stroke, while the 
hay is loose, and slow while the hay is compressed during 
the latter part of the stroke. The cam is the most com- 
mon device to secure this; however, gear wheels with a 




FIG. 144 — A HAY PRESS FOR ENGINE POWER AND EQUIPPED WITH A CON- 
DENSER TO THRUST THE HAY INTO THE HOPPER 

cam shape are often used. The rebound aided by a spring 
is usually depended upon to return the plunger for a new 
stroke ; but a cam motion may be made use of to return 
the plunger. It is to be noted that some machines use a 
stiff pitman and push away from the powder, while others 
use a chain and rod and pull the pitman toward the power 
or reverse the direction of travel of the plunger. A horse- 
power machine has an average capacity of about 18 tons 
a day. A cubic foot of hay before baling weighs 4 or 5 
pounds when stored in the mow or stack. A baling press 
increases its density to 16 or 30 pounds a cubic foot. 
Specially designed presses for compressing hay for export 
secure as high as 40 pounds of hay a cubic foot. 

265. Power presses make use of several variable-speed 
devices and a flywheel to store energy for compression. 
Power machines are often provided with a condenser to 



igO FARM MACHINERY 

thrust the hay into the hopper between strokes. The 
common sizes of bales made are 14 X 18, 16 X 18, and 
17 X 22 inches in cross-section, and of any length. A new 
baler has appeared which is very rapid, making round 
bales tied with twine. The machine can readily handle 
the straw as it comes from a large thresher. Plunger 
presses are built with a capacity up to 90 tons a day. 



CHAPTER IX 

MANURE SPREADERS 

266. Manure as a fertilizer. — Although the manure 
spreader has been a practical machine for some time, it 
is only recently that its use has become general. This is 
especially true in the Middle West, where for a long time 
the farmer did not realize the need of applying manure, 
owing to the stored fertility in the soil when the native 
sod was broken, and cultivated crops grown for the first 
time. It has been proved that manure has many advan- 
tages over commercial fertilizer for restoring productive- 
ness to the land after cropping. It has been estimated 
by experts of the United States Department of Agricul- 
ture that the value of the fertilizing constituents of the 
manure produced annually by a horse is %2y, by each 
head of cattle $19, by each hog $12. The value of the 
manure a ton was also estimated at $2 to $7. It is not 
known from what data these estimates were made. The 
value of manure as a fertilizer does not depend solely 
upon the fact that it adds plant food to the soil, but its 
action renders many of the materials in the soil available 
and improves the physical condition of the soil. 

267. Utility of the manure spreader. — As it was with 
the introduction of all other machines which have dis- 
placed hand methods, there is much discussion for and 
against the use of the manure spreader. The greatest 
advantage in the use of the manure spreader lies in its 
ability to distribute the manure economically. Experi- 
ment has shown that, in some cases at least, as good 



192 FARM MACHINERY 

results can be obtained from eight loads of manure to 
the acre as twice that number. It is impossible to dis- 
tribute and spread by hand in as light a distribution as 
by the spreader. The manure is thoroughly pulverized 
and not spread in large bunches, which become fire-fanged 
and of little value as a fertilizer. It is a conservative 
statement that the manure spreader will make a given 
amount of manure cover twice the ground which may be 
covered with hand spreading. Since a light distribution 
may be secured, it can be applied as a top dressing to 
growing crops, such as hay and pasture, without smother- 
ing the crop. The manure spreader also saves labor. It 
is capable of doing the work of five men in spreading 
manure. With a manure loader or a power fork it is 
possible to handle a large amount of manure in a short 
time. 

268. Development. — The first attempts at the development of 
a machine for automatically spreading fertilizer were contem- 
poraneous with a machine for planting or seeding. In 1830 two 
brothers, by the name of Krause, of Pennsylvania, patented a 
machine for distributing plaster or other dry fertilizer. This 
machine consisted of a cart with a bottom sloping to the rear, 
where a transverse opening was provided with a roller under- 
neath. This roller was driven by a belt passed around one of 
the wheel hubs. It fed the fertilizer through the opening. 

The first apron machine was invented by J. K. Holland, of 
North Carolina, in 1850. The endless apron was attached to 
a rear end board and passed over a bed of rollers and around 
a shaft driven by suitable gearing at the front end of the cart. 
After the box had been filled with fertilizer and the apron put 
in gear, it drew the fertilizer to the front and caused it to drop 
little by little over the front end. 

The first spreader of the wagon type was produced by J. H. 
Stevens, of New York, in 1865. His machine had an apron which 
was driven rearward by suitable gearing to discharge the load 
and was cranked back into position for a new load. The later 
machines were provided with vibrating forks at the rear end, 



MANURE SPRKADERS 



193 



which fed the manure to fingers extending to each side, and 
securing in this way a better distribution of the fertilizer than 
the former ways. Thomas McDonald, in 1876, secured a patent 
on a machine much like the Stevens machine, except that it was 




fig. 145 — the j. s. kemp machine of 1877. (from a patent office 

drawing) 



provided with an endless apron passing around the roller at 
each end of the vehicle. 

Many of the ideas of the modern spreader made their appear- 
ance in the patent of J. S. Kemp, granted in 1877. The objects 
of the invention read as follows : "To provide a farm wagon or 
cart with a movable floor composed of slats secured to an end- 
less belt or chain. To the foremost slat an end board is secured, 



194 FARM MACHINERY 

which, when the machine is in forward motion, moves by a 
suitable gearing slowly to the rear, thus propelling the material 
that may be loaded in the vehicle against a rotating toothed 
drum, which pulverizes and evenly spreads the load on the 
ground behind." 

A spreader with a solid bottom to the box over which the 
manure was drawn by chains with slats across and attached 
to an end board, appeared in 1884. Variable-speed devices for 
varying the rate of distribution were provided at the same time. 

An endless apron machine appeared in 1900, with hinged slats 
which overlapped while traveling rearward, and which hung 
downward while traveling ahead on the under side, making 
an open apron. There is a tendency on the part of endless apron 
machines to become fouled by the manure which passes through 
the apron on the upper side and lodges on the inside of the 
lower half. 

It would be impracticable to mention all of the improvements 
to manure spreaders along the line of return motions, variable- 
feed devices, safety end boards, and almost countless details 
in the construction of bed, apron, and beater. 



THE MODERN SPREADER 

The modern manure spreader consists essentially in 
(a) a box with flexible apron for a bottom, (b) gearing 
to move the apron to the rear at a variable speed, and 
(c) a toothed drum or beater to pulverize and spread the 
manure evenly behind. 

269. Aprons. — Three types of aprons or box bottoms 
are to be found in use on the modern spreader: 
(a) a return apron (Fig. 146), with an end board which 
pulls the load to the beater by being drawn under the 
box; (b) the endless apron (Fig. 147), which is com- 
posed of slats or bats passing continuously around reels 
at each end of the box; and (c) bars or a push board, 
moved by chains, thus moving the load to the beater 
over a solid floor. 



1 



MANURE SPREADERS 



195 



The endless apron spreader is perhaps of more simple 
construction than the others, as no return motion is 
needed to return the apron for another load. It will not 
distribute the load well at the finish because it does not 




FIG. 146 — A RETURN APRON SPREADER, SHOWING THE APRON UNDER- 
NEATH, AND ALSO A GEAR AND CHAIN DRIVE TO BEATER 

have the end board to push the last of the load to the 
beater. There is also some difficulty in preventing the 
inside of the apron from being fouled with manure. One 
make overcomes this difficulty by hinging the slats in a 




777771 



V\ 



i i 



^^y,'':^- 




FIG. 147 — AN ENDLESS APRON 

way that they may hang vertically while on the lower 
side. To prevent fouling, the endless apron may be cov- 
ered with slats for only half its length. The chain apron 
without doubt requires much more power than the others, 
since the weight is not carried upon rollers. Some 



196 



FARM MACHINERY 



spreaders have an advantage over others in the arrange- 
ment of rollers and the track on which they roll. The 
rollers may be either attached to the bed or to the slats. 
270. Main drive. — The main drive to the beater varies 
with different machines. The power may be taken from 
the main axle with a large gear wheel or by means of a 
large sprocket and a heavy chain or link belt. It is 



% 




FIG. 148 — A CHAIN DRIVE TO THE BEATER. NOTE THE METHOD OF 
REVERSING THE MOTION 

almost universal practice to use a combination of a chain 
and a gear in the drive. The speed of the beater must 
be such that the power must be increased twice, while 
the direction of rotation must be reversed. To reverse 
the direction of the motion, the gear is used. The heavy 
chain or link belt offers some advantage in case of 
breakage. A single link may be replaced at a small cost, 
while if a tooth is broken from a large gear the entire 
wheel must be replaced. 



MAXURE SPREADERS 



197 



The use of "ears is avoided entirely in at least one 
make by passing;' the drive chain over the top of the 
■main sprocket and back instead of around it. This re- 
verses the direction of rotation (Fig. 148). Some 
spreaders are so arranged that a large part of the main 
drive must be kept in motion even when the machines are 
out of gear. The gearing must be well protected, or it 




FIG. 149 — A CHAIN AND GEAR DRIVE TO THE BEATER. THE BEATER IS 
PLACED IN GEAR BY MOVING BACK UNTIL GEARS MESH 



will become fouled in loading. The main axle must be 
very heavy on a spreader, as a large share of the load is 
placed upon it, and it must not spring or it will increase 
the draft greatly. Large bearings should be provided 
with a reliable means of oiling and excluding dirt. 

271. Beaters. — The beater is usualh^ composed of eight 
bars filled with teeth or pegs for tearing apart and pul- 



198 



FARM MACHINERY 



verizing- the manure (Fig. 150). Some variance is noticed 
in the diameter of the beater and its location as to height. 
It is claimed by certain manufacturers that much power 




FIG. 150 — A MANURE SPREADER BEATER 

may be saved by building the beater large and placing it 
low ; in this way there is no tendency to compress the 
manure on the lower side of tHe beater, as it is not neces- 
sary to carry the manure forward and up. When a 




FIG. 151 — A MANURE SPREADER WITH AN END BOARD TO BE PLACED IN 
FRONT OF THE BEATER 

beater is so placed it does not have the pulverizing effect 
it would have otherwise. When a load is placed upon a 
spreader it is usually much higher and more compact in 



MANURE SPREADERS 



199 



the center. If due pro\-ision is not made, the spreader 
will spread heavier at the center than at the sides. One 
beater has the teeth arranged in diagonal rows, tending 
to carry the manure from the center to the sides. Sev- 
eral have leveling raV:es in front of the beater, and at 
least one a vibrating rake, to level and help pulverize 
the manure. If no provision is made, the front of the 
beater will be filled with manure while loading, and the 



•<Sa3p, 




FIG. 152 — A RATCHET DRIVE FOR THE APRON. NOTE METHOD OF VARYING 

THE FEED 



machine will not only be difficult to start, but will carry 
over a heavy bunch of manure when put in motion. To 
surmount this difficulty, the beater in some makes is 
made to move back from the load when put in gear. A 
few machines have an end board, which is dropped in 
front of the beater while the load is put on, and lifted 
when spreading is begun. 

272. Apron drives. — At least two systems of apron 
drives are in use: (a) the ratchet, and (b) the screw or 



200 



FARM MACHINERY 



worm gear drive, the feed being regulated in the latter 
case with a face gear or cone gears and a flexible shaft. 
The ratchet drive (Fig. 152) has an advantage in ofifering 
a great range of speed. As many as ten speeds for the 
apron, or in reality ten rates of feed, may be obtained. 
However, the motion is intermittent and heavy strains 
are thrown upon the driving mechanism by the sudden 
starting of the heavy load. The ratchet drive is liable 
to breakage and does not prevent the load from feeding 
too fast in ascending a hill owing to the tendency of the 




FIG. 153 — THE WORM GEAR DRIVE TO THE APRON. 
V.\RY1NG THE FEED 



ALSO FACE GEAR FOR 



load to run back. To prevent this a brake is used, but 
must be unsatisfactory. 

The worm drive, on the other hand, gives a constant 
motion to the apron, but does not offer a great variety of 
feeds, and unless carefully attended to wears out quickly. 
Fig. 153 shows a worm drive with a face gear for vary- 
ing the feed. The worm drive must be greased several 
times each day or it will cut out. It has been known for 
a worm gear to wear out in a single day's work. The 
cone gear for varying the speed is very little used, but 
seems to be a satisfactory drive. 



MANURE SPREADERS 20T 

The return motion is usually independent of the for- 
ward motion, a safety device being arranged to prevent 
both forward and return motions being put in gear at 
the same time. In the early machines the apron was re- 
turned by hand, but now power is universally used. A 
crank is sometimes provided by which the apron may be 
returned by hand if desired. The endless apron, of 
course, requires no return motion. 

273. Wheels. — At the present time there is some dis- 
cussion in regard to the merits of wood and metal wheels 
for manure spreaders. The large cast hub needed to 
carry the driving pawls or the main ratchet is favorable 
to the use of a wood wheel. This type of wheel has 
been displaced on practically all other implements, and 
it is safe to venture an opinion that it will be displaced 
in time on the manure spreader. Wide tires of 5 or 6 
inches are essential on the manure spreader. In order to 
secure greater traction the wheels must often be provided 
with grouters or traction bands. The traction band may 
be removed when not needed, permitting the spreader to 
travel more smoothly over hard ground. 

274. Trucks. — As now constructed, the manure spreader 
has a low front truck arranged to turn under the bed. 
A low truck offers an advantage in loading, but un- 
doubtedly is of heavier draft. A narrow front truck pre- 
vents a lashing of the neck yoke in passing over uneven 
ground. 

275. The frame of a manure spreader must be con- 
structed of good material, and should also be well braced 
and trussed with iron rods. Not only must the material 
be strong, but also able to resist the rotting action of 
the manure. 

276. Simplicity. — It is desirable that the manure 
spreader as well as other machines shall be as simple as 



202 FARM MACHINERY 

possible. Multiplied systems of gearing and levers are 
not desirable on any machine. The best results are ob- 
tained from few working parts, provided they will do the 
work. 

277. Sizes. — The capacity of manure spreaders is given 
in bushels, yet there appears to be very little connection 
between the bushel and capacity of manure spreaders. 
By measuring, it has been found that certain spreaders' 
capacity would be more nearly correct if given in cubic 
feet instead of bushels. 

278. Drilling attachment. — To apply manure to grow- 
ing crops planted in rows and to economize the manure, 
a drilling attachment is provided. It consists in a hood 
for the beater, with funnels below, from which the 
manure is discharged beside or on each row. The at- 
tachment may also be used to distribute lime and other 
fertilizers. 

279. Other uses. — The manure spreader may be used 
to distribute straw and other material for mulching. 
With the beater removed, the manure spreader may be 
used as a dump wagon for hauling and dumping stone, 
gravel, etc. It is especially useful in hauling potatoes 
and root crops where the}^ are to be dumped into a chute 
leading to the root cellar. The apron in this case is 
moved back by hand power by means of a crank pro- 
vided for the purpose. 



CHAPTER X 
THRESHING MACHINERY 

280, Development. — In the oldest of writings mention 
is made of the crude devices by which grain in the 
ancient times was separated from the straw. Although 
mention of mechanical devices was made at a very early 
time, the two methods which came into extended use 
were treading with animals and beating the grains from 
the ears with a flail. The flail was nothing more nor less 
than a short club usually connected to a handle with a 
piece of leather. This long handle enabled the operator 
to remain in an upright position and strike the un- 
threshed grain upon the floor a sharp blow. After the 
grain was threshed from the head or ear, the straw was 
carefully raked away and the grain separated from the 
chafT by throwing it into the air and letting the wind 
blow out the chaff, or by fanning while pouring from a 
vessel in a thin stream. Later a fanning mill was in- 
vented to separate the grain from the chaff. 

Flailing was the common method of threshing grain 
as late as 1850. In regard to the amount of grain 
threshed in a day with a flail, S. E. Todd makes the fol- 
lowing statement in Thomas's book on Farm ]\Iachin- 
ery : "I have threshed a great deal of grain of all kinds 
with my own flail, and a fair average quantity of grain 
that an ordinary laborer will be able to thresh and clean 
in a day is 7 bushels of wheat, 18 bushels of oats, 15 
bushels of barley, 8 bushels of rye, or 20 bushels of 
buckwheat." 



204 



FARM MACHINERY 



281. Early Scotch and English machines. — About the year 1750 
a Scotchman named Michael Menzies devised a machine which 
seems to have been nothing more nor less than several flails 
operated by water power. This machine was not practical, but 
in 1758 a Mr. Lechie, of Stirlingshire, England, invented a 
machine with arms attached to a shaft and inclosed in a case. 
Lechie's machine gave the idea for the more successful machines 
which came later. 

A Mr. Atkinson, of Yorkshire, devised a machine (the date is 



1 




FIG. 154 — A THRESHING MACHINE IN OPERATION. THE GRAIN IS SUPPLIED 

TO THE MACHINE FROM ONE SIDE IN ORDER TO OBTAIN A 

BETTER VIEW OF THE MACHINE 



not known) having a cylinder with teeth, or a peg drum, as it 
was called, and these teeth ran across other rows of tefeth, which 
acted as concaves. 

282, American development. — The Pitts brothers have figured 
more prominently than any two other men in the early develop- 
ment of threshing machines in America. Others were granted 
patents, but to these men credit should be given for inventing 
and manufacturing the first practical machine. These brothers 



TIIRi:SniNC. MACHINERY 



205 



were Hiram A. and John A. Pitts, of Winthrop, Maine. A patent 
was granted to them December 29, 1837, on a thresher, the first 
of the "endless apron" type. This machine was made not only 
to thresh the grain, but to separate it from the straw and the 
chaff. Although this machine as constructed by the Pitts 
brothers was different from the modern separator, it contained 
many of the essential features. It had but a single apron. The 
tailings elevator returned the tailings behind the cylinder over 




FIG. 155 — THRESHING MACHINE OF 1867 



the sieves to be recleaned, instead of into the cylinder, as now 
arranged. 

In the Twelfth Census Report, the following statement is 
made: "The first noteworthy threshing or separating machine 
invented in the United States which was noticeable was that of 
Hiram A. and John A. Pitts, of Winthrop. jMaine, and may be 
said to be the prototype of the machines used at the present 
time." 

The first machines and horse powers to drive them were 
satisfactory. The machine was finally made so it could be loaded 
on trucks, transported from place to place, and set by removing 
the trucks and staking to the ground. This type of machine 
received the name of "groundhog thresher." Later the machines 



206 



FARM MACHINERY 



were mon 



nted 



on wheels, and hence were quite portable. The 
early horse power consisted 
of a vertical shaft mounted 
between beams, to which a 
sweep was attached. The 
power was taken by a tumb- 
ling rod from a master 
wheel mounted above. This 
type earned the name of 
"cider-mill" power. Tread 
power was used largely to 
operate the early threshers, 
and water power to some 
extent. John A. Pitts fin- 
ally located a factory at 
Buffalo, New York, and the 
"Bufifalo Pitts" thresher be- 
came well known through- 
out the country. This ma- 
chine is manufactured to-day 
with some of the original 
features. John Pitts died in 
1859. Hiram A. Pitts moved 
to Chicago in 1852 and 
established a factory which 
built what was known as 
the "Chicago Pitts." He 
died in i860. Much credit 
is due to these men for the 
development of a practical 
threshing machine. 

THE MODERN THRESH- 
ING MACHINE OR 
SEPARATOR 

283. Operations. — The 

threshing machine as it is 
constructed to-day per- 
forms four distinct opera- 




THRESHING MACHINERY 



207 



tions. These operations and the parts that are called upon 
to perform them in most machines may be enumerated as 
follows : 

First, shelling the grain from the heatl. The parts 
which do the shelling or the threshing are the cylinder and 
the conca\es with their teeth. l'"ig. 157 shows these ])arts. 

Second, separating the straw from the grain and chaff. 
The i)arts which perform this operation are the grate, the 
beater, the checkboard, and the straw rack, or raddle. 




FIG. 157— THE CYLINDER AND CONCAVE 

Third, separating the grain from the chafT and dirt, per- 
formed by the shoe, fan, windboard, screens, and taijings 
elevator. 

Fourth, delivering the grain to one place and the straw 
to another, which is accomplished by the grain elevator 
and the stacker or straw carrier. 

Other attachments, as the self-feeder and weigher, are 
often provided. 

These parts vvill now be discussed somewhat in detail. 

284. Cylinder. — The cylinder is usually made by at- 
taching parallel bars to the outer edge of spiders mounted 
on the cylinder shaft. The whole is made very rigid by 



208 FARM MACHINERY 

shrinking wrought-iron bands over the bars. A solid 
cylinder may be used instead of the bars. The bars in some 
makes are made of two pieces, and hence are called 
double-barred cylinders. The teeth are held in place by 
nuts or wedges, and are often provided with lock washers. 
Wooden bars may be placed under the nuts and act as a 
cushion, preventing the teeth from loosening as readily 
as otherwise. The cylinder has usually 9, 12, or 20 bars, 
the latter being spoken of as a big cylinder. 

The cylinder travels with a peripheral speed of about 
6,000 feet a minute. The usual speed for the 12-bar 
cylinder is 1,100 revolutions per minute, and of the 20-bar 
cylinder is 800 revolutions per minute. A large amount of 
power is stored in the cylinder when in motion and 
enables the machine to maintain its speed when an undue 
amount of straw enters the cylinder at a time. 

The kernels of grain should be removed from the heads 
and retaining hulls in passing through the cylinder. The 
other devices in the machine do not have a threshing 
effect. In threshing damp, tough grain, a higher speed 
must be maintained than when threshing dry grain. It 
is attempted, however, to run the cylinder at about uni- 
form speed in nearly all cases. 

As the cylinder is heavy and travels at a high speed, 
it must be properly balanced, or it will not run smoothly. 
In the factory the cylinder is made up and then balanced 
by running at a high speed on loose boxes. The heavy 
side is located by holding a piece of chalk against the 
cylinder while in motion. When the cylinder teeth be- 
come worn they must be replaced with new teeth, which 
are heavier, so that there is a tendency to put the cylinder 
out of balance. After putting in new teeth the cylinder 
may be balanced by removing from the machine and 
mounting it on two level straight edges placed on saw 



1 
I 



THRESHING MACHINERY 209' 

horses or trestles. Two steel carpenter's squares will 
answer for straight edges. The heavy side of the cylin- 
der will be found, because it will come to rest at the 
lower side. Weights may be added in the shape of nuts 
and wedges to bring the cylinder into balance. This 
latter method will not bring the cylinder into perfect 
balance, as one end may be heavy on one side, while at 
the opposite end the other side will be the heavier, and 
the cylinder will appear to be in perfect l:)alance on the 
straight edges. 

The cylinder must have end adjustment in order that 
its teeth will tra\el directly between the concave teeth. 
If the cylinder teeth travel close to the concave teeth on 
one side they will crack the kernels and break up the 
straw, and thus lca\'c a larger opening on the opposite 
side through which the grain may pass unthreshed. It 
is advisable that the cylinder shaft be heavy and 
equipped with self-aligning boxes provided with a re- 
liable oiling device. Some machines are made with an 
"outboard" bearing on the pulley end of shaft, i. e., out- 
side of main drive pulley. This arrangement is strong 
but somewhat difficult to line up, and the belt cannot be 
detached readily. 

285. The concave received its name from its shape 
being hollowed out to conform to the shape of the 
cylinder. The concave carries teeth which resemble the 
cylinder teeth very much, and have openings through 
which some of the threshed grain may fall. It is made 
in sections, so the number of teeth may be varied 
by substituting different sections. It may be moved 
or adjusted to or froiu the cylinder. In some machines 
the adjustment may be made at the front and at the 
rear independently of each other, it being claimed that 
an advantage is gained by having the concave lower 



2IO 



FARM MACHINERY 



at the rear in order that a larger opening be provided 
for the straw to pass through as it is expanded in the 
operation of threshing. As a rule, it is advisable to use 
few rows of concave teeth and set them well up against 
the cylinder, as there is little chance of the concave be- 
coming clogged. 

286. Cylinder and concave teeth. — The teeth in both 
the cylinder and the concave are curved backward 
slightly to prevent the straw being carried past the cylin- 
der without being threshed. Teeth become more rounded 
by use and reduce the capacity and interfere with the 
proper working of the machine. It is stated that a very 
large amount of power is required when the teeth become 
rounded ofit'. When worn the teeth should be replaced, 

making it necessary to bal- 
ance the cylinder before re- 
placing in the machine, and 
also calling for watchfulness 
on the part of the thresher 
lest some of the new teeth 
become loose and cause 
damage. The teeth are usu- 
ally made of a good grade of 
mild steel, yet certain manu- 
facturers prefer tool steel 
with a hardened edge. No 
doubt the latter wear better. 
287. The grate consists of 
parallel bars, with openings between, designed to retard 
the straw and allow a large portion of the grain to pass 
through to the grain conveyor before reaching the straw 
rack (Fig. 158). 

288. The beater. — After passing through the cylinder 
and concave and over the grate the grain comes in con- 




FIG. 158 — THE GRATE AND CONCAVE 



THRESHING MACHINERY 



211 



tact with the beater. The beater (Fig. 159) is a fan-like 
device which tends to carry the straw away from the 
cylinder and forms a stream of straw to pass over the 
straw rack. Some makers make use of two beaters, one 
above the straw and one below, in an effort to separate 
the grain and chaff from the straw. The beater must 




FIG. 159 THE BEATER 

run at high enough speed to enable the centrifugal force 
to prevent the straw from wrapping around it. 

289. The checkboard. — The purpose of the checkboard 
is to stop the kernels which may be thrown from the 
beater. It is usually constructed of sheet iron and al- 
lowed to drag over the stream of straw. 

290. Straw rack. — The straw rack is for the purpose of 
carrying the straw away from the cylinder and shaking 




FIG. 160 ONE TYPE OF STRAW RACK 

the grain down on the grain conveyor below. Straw 
racks are of three types: (a) endless apron or raddle 
type, (b) oscillating racks, (c) vibrating racks. 

The endless apron or raddle rack consists of a web 
with thumpers underneath to shake the grain to the bot- 
tom. It is usually made in sections with an opening 
between which permits the grain and chaff to fall 



212 FARM MACHINERY 

through. The endless apron was the first device used 
and is now found in only a few machines, and there only 
in short lengths. 

The oscillating rack is made in sections and attached 
to a crank shaft directly. The sections are made to bal- 
ance each other and ofifer a great advantage in this re- 
spect. An oscillator is a very good device for separating 
the grain, but perhaps somewhat difficult to keep in re- 
pair. 

The vibrating rack may be made in one or more sec- 
tions. When made in one section there is usually an 
attempt to balance its motion with that of the grain pan. 
The rack is provided with notched fingers, called "fish- 
backs." These are given a backward and upward thrust 
by a pitman attached to a crank, causing the rack to 
swing on its supports. This motion causes the straw to 
move backward and at the same time be thoroughly agi- 
tated. Machines are constructed with two racks, the 
upper to carry ofT the coarse straw and a lower to sepa- 
rate the finer. The double rack permits of their motion 
being balanced the same as the rack built in two 
sections. 

291. The grain conveyor or grain pan extends from 
under the cylinder back almost the full length of the 
machine. Its function is to convey the grain to the 
cleaning mechanism. It should be of light, yet strong, 
construction. It must not sag, or grain will be pocketed 
in such a manner that its motion will not cause it to 
pass on. 

292. Chaffer. — At the end of the grain conveyor and 
really forming a part of it is the chaffer, which is a sieve 
with large openings permitting all but the coarse straw 
to pass through. A part of the blast from the fan passes 
through the chaffer, and a large portion is carried off in 



TlIKliSlllNC MAClllNKUY 



213 



this manner. At the back of the chaffer is placed the 
taihngs auger, which catches the part heads and grains 
with the outer hulls, to return them by way of the tail- 
ings elevator to the cylinder to be rethreshed. Over the 
tailings auger an adjustable conveyor extension is 
usually placed to aid in stopping the unthreshed heads. 

293. The shoe. — The shoe is the box in which the 
sieves are mounted, and which has a tight, sloping bot- 
tom to carry the threshed grain to the grain auger. The 
shoe is always given a motion to shake the grain through 




FIG. 161 — FAN, SHOE, AND CHAFFER 



it. If this moti(^n be lengthwise with the machine, it is 
said to have end shake; if across the machine, it is said 
to have cross shake. The latter is used very little at 
present. 

294. The sieves. — The sieves consist of a w^ooden 
frame covered with woven wire cloth or a perforated 
sheet of metal. Adjustable sieves are constructed in 
which the size of openings may be adjusted to suit the 
work done. The openings in the sieve should be large 
enough to permit the passage of the kernel downward, 



214 FARM MACHINERY 

and of sufficient number to permit the blast to pass 
upward through it. The sieve must be well enough sup- 
ported so it will not sag when loaded, or the grain will 
settle to the low spot and clog the sieve. The frame 
should be strong, and perhaps reenforced with a malle- 
able casting at each of the corners. 

295. The fan consists of a series of blades or wings 
mounted on a shaft. A blast is thus created to blow the 
chaff from the grain. An overblast fan delivers the blast 
backward from the blades at the upper portion of the 
fan drum. The underblast fan rotates in the opposite 
direction and delivers the blast from the lower blades. 
Since there is a tendency to create a stronger blast from 
the center of the fan than from any other part, bands are 
placed in the fan by some manufacturers to distribute 
the blast more evenly across the width of the shoe. 

ATTACHMENTS 

296. The self-feeder and band cutter. — The work of 
the self-feeder is to cut the bands of the bound grain, 
distribute it across the mouth of the separator, and de- 
liver it to the cylinder. To carry the bundles to the 
band cutters, the feeder must be provided with a carrier. 
A variety of carriers is found in use ranging from a solid 
canvas or rubber belt to two belts or link belts carrymg 
slats. Both seem to be very satisfactory. 

The band cutters may be knives attached to a rotating 
shaft, or knives similar to those in use upon mowers, the 
latter style of knife giving a chopping-like motion into 
the bundle, tending to draw them into the machine. It 
is claimed that this type is much better in remaining 
sharp for a longer time. It is not, however, of as simple 
construction. 



1 



THRESHING MACHINERY 



215 



Just before the grain enters the cylinder it is spread 
and more evenly distributed by the retarders, which also, 
as their name implies, prevent the grain from being 
drawn into the c\lindcr in bunches. 

297. Stackers. — The straw carrier was for a long time 
the only means of carrying the straw away from the 
machine. This consisted in a chute, over the bottom of 
which the straw was drawn with a web. This developed 
from a carrier extending directly to the rear to an inde- 




FIG. 162 — A SECTIONAL VIEW OF A SELF-FEEDER 



pendent swinging stacker and the attached swinging 
stacker. The former has gone out of use entirely. Ijut 
the attached swinging stacker is used to some extent. It 
has some advantages over the wind stacker for barn 
work. 

298. The wind stacker or blower has displaced the 
straw carrier to a large extent because it requires a 
smaller crew to operate. The wind stacker is made in 
rflany types. The fan drum is placed horizontal, inclined, 
or vertical ; the straw mav enter the fan direct or into the 



2l6 



FARM MACHINERY 



blast after it has left the fan. The bevel gears by which 
the fan is often driven are a source of trouble if the gears 
do not mesh correctly from the beginning. They have 
been known to wear out completely in a few days' work. 
In order to obviate this trouble, the stacker drive belt is 
often required to make the turn over two pulleys and 
drive the fan direct. This method also gives some 
trouble. 

The wind stacker without doubt requires more power 
than a straw carrier, but saves labor. It is impossible 



1 




FIG. 163 — A WIND STACKER. THE FAN DRUM IS NOT SHOWN 

to save the straw as well, but often the straw is con- 
sidered to be of little value. 

299. The weigher is an attachment by which the threshed 
grain is weighed and measured as threshed. It is a very 
satisfactory arrangement to have on a machine doing 
custom work. The weigher is nearly always provided 
with an elevator by which the grain is elevated into the 
wagon box. To do the elevating, pans or buckets pass- 
ing through a tube are used. A few pneumatic grain ele- 
vators have been used, but not to any extent. When it 



THRESHING MACHINERY 



217 



is desired to place the grain in bat^s a bagger attachment 
is provided, which does not elevate the grain as high. 

300. Size and capacity of threshing machines. — The 
size of a threshing- machine is indicated b}- the width or 




FIG. 164 — A WEIGHER AND BAGGER 



length of the cylinder and the width of the separator 
proper. The two dimensions in inches are written to- 



2l8 FARM MACHINERY 

gether. The size varies from i8 X '22 inches to 44 X 66 
inches, but the 32 X 54-inch or 36 X 58-inch are the 
common sizes. The ratio between the width of cylinder 
and separator varies slightly with different makes. Steam 
traction engines are now generally used to furnish the 
power for the larger sizes, although gasoline engines are 
being introduced into the work. A 36 X 58-inch machine 
requires a 15- or 16-horse-power engine, as usually rated. 
For the smaller sizes, horse powers and portable gasoline 
engines are generally used. The amount of grain threshed 
a day will vary very much with the conditions of the 
grain. There is also a wide variance in the size of ma- 
chines, but the average-sized steam-operated outfit will 
thresh from 500 to 1,000 bushels of wheat a day or twice 
that number of bushels of oats. 

301. Selection. — The selection of a threshing machine 
depends upon many conditions, among which may be 
mentioned the kind and quantity of grain to be threshed, 
the amount of labor, the power, and the condition of the 
bridges in the locality. There has been a gradual in- 
crease in the size of threshing outfits for some time. 
These large machines have an enormous capacity and re- 
quire a large force of men to run them. However, the 
small machine is still manufactured, and there is much 
argument in its favor, especially so since the introduction 
of portable gasoline engines of a size to operate it. 
Steel is made use of to a large extent in the manufacture 
of separators, and no doubt will prove to be a very 
durable material when galvanized. The threshing ma- 
chine deserves good care on the part of the owner. It 
is an expensive machine, and much money can be saved 
by protecting it from the weather. 

302. Bean and pea threshers differ from grain threshers 
in having two threshing cylinders operated at different 



THRESHING MACHINERY 



219 



speeds. The two cylinders are necessary owing to the 
fact that these crops can never be cured uniformly. When 
the pods are dry the seeds are readily separated from the 
pods, and if threshed violently the seeds will split. On the 
other hand, when the pods are not dry the seeds cannot 
be separated readily and are not inclined to split. Thus 
in the special bean thresher the vines and pods are fed 
through a cylinder run at a low speed, which threshes out 
the dry pods. The threshed seeds are screened out, and 
the remaining material passes to a cylinder run at a 
higher speed to have the damp and greener pods 




FIG. 165 — 'SECTION OF A PEA AND BEAN THRESHER WITH TWO CYLINDERS 

threshed. The bean thresher is often provided with a re- 
cleaner and clod crusher to remove the dirt. The size 
of the bean and pea threshers is indicated by the width 
of cylinder and the width of the separator or machine 
proper. Machines are usually built in the 16 X 28-, 
26 X 44-, and 36 X 44-inch sizes. The larger sizes have 
a capacity up to 100 bushels of clean seed an hour. 

303. Clover hullers resemble threshing machines very 
much, but dillcr in being provided with an additional 
hulling cylinder. In passing the threshing cylinder the 
heads are removed from the stems and the seed from the 
heads to some extent. The heads are separated from the 



220 



FARM MACHINERY 



Stems and chaff and passed to the hulling cylinder, which 
removes the seed from the pods. The construction of 
hulling cylinders varies from a cylinder with fluted teeth 
and a wooden cylinder with steel brads for teeth to a 
cylinder covered with hardened steel rasp plates. It is 
necessary in all cases to have a large amount of surface 




FIG. l66 — SECTION OF A CLOVER HULLER 



for the clover to come in contact wath. Clover hullers 
are rated according to the size of the hulling cylinder, 
which may vary from 28 to 42 inches. The large 
machines are driven by steam power, while horse power 
may be used for the smaller. They may be provided 
with wind stackers, self-feeders, and baggers similar to 
threshing machines. They have a capacity up to 10 to 15 
bushels of cleaned seed an hour. 



CHAPTER XI 

CORN MACHINERY 
Feed and Silage Cutters 

304, Development. — It is not an original, neither is it 
a novel idea, for farmers to cut dry feed for their stock. 
This has been going on for ages. The first machine for 
cutting feed was simply a knife for hacking it up. Later 
the feed was placed in a box, allowing the ends to come 
over a cutter head ; then a knife was drawn down over 
this head, which acted in the manner of shears. Possibly 
the next development in feed cutters was to fasten a 
spiral knife to a shaft in such a manner that the cutting 
might be done by a continuous rotary motion. Such a 
cutter was invented by Mr. Salmon of England in about 
1820, and by a Mr. Eastman in the United States in 1822. 
Another type of machine which has been developed is 
one in which the kni-ves are fastened to the spokes of a 
flywheel, and by which the feed is chopped by being fed 
into the wheel, the cutting taking place over the end of 
the feeding board. 

The storage of green and partially cured succulent 
crops in a silo of some form or other may be traced to the 
beginning of history, but it has been recently that silos 
have been made use of in America. In 1882 the United 
States Department of Agriculture could find only 99 
farmers in this country who owned silos. A silo may be 
found on nearly every dairy farm to-day, and it is con- 
sidered to be almost an essential. The silage cutter is 



222 



FARM MACHINERY 



^ 



simply the adaptation of the cutter for dry feed to the 
cutting- of green crops. 

305. Cutter heads, — Two types of cutter heads are to 
be found upon the market, which differ in the shape of 




FIG. 167 — AN ENSILAGE CUTTER WITH SELF-FEEDER AND PNEUMATIC 

ELEVATOR 

knives used and the direction in which the fodder is fed 
to them. The radial knife is fastened directly to a flywheel, 

which may also carry the fan 
blades for the stacker. The 
advantage of this t3^pe lies in 
the fact that it has plenty of 
clearance and the chopped 
fodder does not have any dif- 
ficulty in getting away from 
the cutting head. The knives 
are usually set at an angle to 
give a "shear cut." To this 

FIG. IO8 — A RADIAL KNIFE 1 1 1 ^ 1 • 

CUTTER HEAD saiiic head short knives or 




CORN MACHINERY 



223 




teeth called splitters may be attached to split the ends of 
the stalk before they are cut off. 

The second type of cutter head is the one which carries 
a spiral knife. The cutting edge is always the same dis- 
tance from the shaft (Fig. 169). The knife may be pro- 
vided with saw teeth for handling dry feed to better 
advantage. 

306. The feeding table is provided on the larger power 
machines with an end- 
less apron to carry the 
fodder to the feed rolls. 
The speed of the feed 
rolls and the apron is 
capable of adjustment fig. 169-A spiral kx, k head 
for various rates of feed and coarseness of cutting. 

307. Elevators are of two general types : double-chain 
conveyor or web-carrier elevator, and the pneumatic. 
The carrier elevator is satisfactory except for very high 
lifts. The long webs are a source of trouble. It is eco- 
nomical to build silos high ; hence the use of pneumatic 
or wind elevators. It is necessary to keep the elevator 
pipe almost perpendicular, or the silage will settle to one 
side and not be carried up by the air blast. 

308. Selection. — All bearings, especially those con- 
nected with the cutting knives and feed rollers, should 
be very long. The shaft should be strong, and the gears 
heavy enough to stand a variable load. It is well to have 
the feed rollers so arranged that should more feed go in 
one side than on the other, that side could expand, yet 
grip the feed firmly. Since the cutter head should have 
a capacity of from 600 to 1,000 revolutions a minute, the 
frame should be made exceptionally strong and stiff. 
Provision should be made so the bearings cannot wind, 
as this causes much more friction and thus will require 



224 



FARM MACHINERY 



much more power than necessary. The capacity of silage 
cutters depends upon the length of each cut and upon the 
length of the knives, as well as the condition of the feed. 
In general a silage cutter should have a capacity of about 
one ton an hour for each horse power of power used. 

HUSKERS AND SHREDDERS 

309. Construction. — The husker and shredder is a com- 
bined machine to convert the coarse corn fodder, stalk 
and leaves, into an inviting feed for farm animals, and 
at the same time deliver the corn nicely husked to the 
bin or the wagon. By this means the entire corn crop is 
made use of and the fodder put into better shape for 
feeding. 

The usual arrangement of the husker and shredder is 
illustrated in Fig. 170. The fodder is first placed upon 




FIG. 170 — SECTIONAL VIEW OF A HUSKER AND SHREDDER 



the feeding table, from which it is fed, the butts first, to 
the feed or snapping rolls. Many of the machines are 
manufactured with self-feeders much like those for the 
threshing machine. Owing to the loss of hands and 
arms in feeding the early machines, provision is now 



CORN MACHINERY 225 

made whereby it will be almost impossible for accidents 
of this nature to happen. 

As the stalks pass through the snapping rolls the ears 
are squeezed off and allowed to fall upon a conveyor, 
which carries them to the husking rolls, or they may fall 
upon the husking rolls direct. Here the husks are pulled 
off and are carried to the wagon or bin. When the stalks 
leave the snapping rolls the}- pass over cutting plates 
and immediately are cut into small particles by the 
shredding head. This shredded fodder is then conveyed 
to the elevator, which may be either a carrier or pneu- 
matic stacker. As the shredded fodder passes through 
the machine it passes over beaters, which agitate the 
fodder so that all shelled corn falls out and is conveyed 
to the wagon. 

310. The snapping rolls. — The snapping rolls of the 
shredder may either be made corrugated, chilled, casting, 
or, in better machines, of tool steel, or they may be made 
of cast iron and with lugs inserted. The latter type 
seems to be well adapted to green and damp corn. The 
snapping rolls are given sufficient pressure by springs to 
grasp the stalks firmly. 

311. The husking rolls rotate together in pairs, grasp- 
ing the husk and tearing it away from the ears. There 
are very many different types of husking rolls on the 
market. The most common type seems to be one where 
the rolls are set parallel to each other in pairs. The ends 
of the rolls where the ear first strikes are higher than the 
ends where the ear leaves. Sometimes there is an apron 
above which forces the ears along the rolls. The devices 
for catching the husks are simply lugs or husking pins 
set in the rolls. These lugs have sharp-tempered heads. 
The husking rolls are held firmly together by strong 
springs. 



226 FARM MACHINERY 

312. The shredder head may be made up of several 
plates of steel of the rip-saw type tooth. These plates 
are so warped or bent that for every revolution of the 
head only two teeth should pass over the same point in 
the stock. The teeth should be offset enough to cut off 
a fairly good slice. In some shredders there are no 
cutting plates. The shredder head is set so close to the 
snapping rolls that as the stalks come through it tears 
them to pieces. Some machines are also provided with a 
revolving cutter bar. 

Many machines have an interchangeable shredder and 
cutter head. By using the cutter head the same machine 
may be used in cutting straw or green fodder silage. The 
shredder head is also made for some machines much like 
a thresher cylinder, except the teeth are shorter and 
sharper. 

313. Shelled corn separating device. — One of the essen- 
tial features of a shredder is to be able to separate all 
shelled corn from the shredded fodder. The best means 
for this is to have some form of beater agitating the 
shredded product in the air, and thereby allowing the 
shelled corn to rattle through. The corn then falls 
through a sieve and is conveyed to a bagger or wagon 
elevator. 

314. Size. — The size of the husker and shredder is 
usually denoted by the number of husking rolls, as a 
4-, 8-, or lo-roll machine. 

315. Capacity. — The capacity of a husker and shredder 
is a variable quantity, as all manufacturers will state. It 
is somewhat difficult to reach a definite basis upon which 
to rate capacity. The number of acres a day or the num- 
ber of bushels a day will not state accurately the amount 
of work performed. In general it may be safe to state 



CORN MACHINERY 22/ 

that the 8-roll husker and shredder will handle the fodder 
from 8 to 15 acres a day and husk from 25 to 80 bushels 
of corn an hour. 

CORN SHELLERS 

316. Development. — The earliest device used in tlie shelling 
of Indian corn or maize was a simple iron bar placed across a 
box and over which the ear of corn was rasped. The edge 
of a shovel was often used in place of this bar. Another early 
scheme was to drive the ear with a mallet through a hole just 
large enough to let the cob pass through. 

Edmund Burke, Commissioner of Patents, in making his report 
for the year 1848, states that two patents were granted on corn 
shellers. He also states: "Corn shellers have usually been con- 
structed in one of three modes. In the first the shelling is 
performed on the periphery of a cylinder; in the second it is 
done on the sides (one or both) of a wheel; and in the third 
it is done by forcing, by means, of a mallet or hammer, the cob, 
surrounded by the corn, through a hole sufficiently large to 
admit the cob only. The sides of this hole are called the 
strippers and are often arranged in radial sectional pieces of 
four, six, or eight each, acting concentrically against the corn 
or cob by the force of a spring or substitute behind. 

"To this last kind of corn sheller there have been raised 
several objections, the most prominent of which is that in the 
opening of the radial sections by stripping the corn from the 
cob the kernels often become entangled and wedged between 
the radial sections and prevent some one or more of the sec- 
tional pieces from acting upon the rows of corn to which it 
may be opposite." 

Among the early American inventors, Clinton and Burrall are 
the best known. The Burrall sheller was probably most popular. 
It was made of iron, furnished with a flywheel to equalize 
velocity, and was worked by one person while another fed it. 
It disciiarged the corn at the bottom and the cob at the end. 
Allen Wayne was the first man to make a two-hole sheller. 

317. Types of the modern sheller. — There are two gen- 
eral t}pes of corn sheller to-day outside of the ware- 



228 



FARM MACHINERY 



house sheller, which will not be considered here. Only 
portable shellers will be discussed. One will be called 

the spring sheller, and the other 
is the well-known cylinder 
sheller. 

318. The spring sheller. — This 
term may not be generally ac- 
cepted, although it is a name ap- 
plied by several manufacturers 
to the sheller whose shelling 
mechanism consists in picker 
wheels, bevel runners, and rag 
irons, held in place with springs. 
This type of sheller is illustrated 
in Fig. 172. It is also called the 
"picker" type of sheller. The 
parts mentioned which come in contact with the corn 




171 — A ONE-HOLE HAND 
SHELLER 




172 — SHELLING MECHANISM OF THE PICKER OR SPRING SHELLER. 
A, FEED CHAIN; B, C, BEATERS; D, F, PICKER WHEELS; 

E, BEVEL runner; G, rag iron; H, spring 



CORN MACHINERY 



229 



are made of chilled iron and are very hard. The tension 
on the rag-iron springs may be adjusted and should be 
capable of individual adjustment when necessary. The 
most important advantage of the spring sheller is that it 
leaves a whole cob. It is especially desirable to have 
wdiole cobs where they are used for fuel. 

319. The cylinder sheller. — The shelling mechanism of 
the cylinder sheller is shown in Fig. 173, and is described 
by the manufacturer as follows: "The shelling cylinder 
is made of heavy rods of wrought iron placed equidistant, 




FIG. 173 — SHELLING MECHANISM OF CYLINDER SHELLER 



presenting a corrugated surface which cannot wear 
smooth. Within this a revolving iron cylinder with 
spiral vanes threshes the corn against the surfaces of the 
rod cylinder. The vanes approach the rods sufificiently 
close to keep every ear in rapid motion, shelling one ear 
or one bushel with the same facility. A regulator at the 
discharge end places the machine within control of the 
operator. The spaces between the rods allow the shelled 
corn to escape freely, thus lessening the draft, relieving 
the cylinder from clogging and from all liability to cut or 



230 



FARM MACHINERY 



grind the grain." The cylinders are made adjustable to 
suit various sizes of corn. 

320. Self-feeder. — The purpose of the self-feeder is to 
carry the ears to the shelling mechanism. The spring 
shellers are provided with feeder chains, which carry 
teeth to "end up" the ears and carry them directly to 
each set of shelling wheels, or to each "hole," as it is 



n 




FIG. 174 — lA SIX-HOLE POWER SHELLER 

called. The cylinder sheller uses a double chain con- 
veyor with slats between, as it is not necessary to end 
up the ears. In all spring shellers provision must be 
made for forcing the ears into the holes. This is accom- 
plished by adding picker-feeding wheels or a beater. 

321. Extension feeders. — In shelling corn from large 
cribs, extension feeders are provided to circumvent the 



CORN IMACIIINERY 23I 

carrying of the corn by hand. These are provided with 
double-chain conveyors and may be had in sections, mak- 
ing a "drag conveyor" which may be extended to almost 
any direction from the main feeder. 

322. Separating device. — To separate the corn and the 
cobs, the whole, after passing through the shelling 
mechanism, is made to pass over a cob rack which per- 
mits the corn and chaff to pass through. The cob rack is 
made in at least three ways — a vibrating rack, a rod 
rack with rakes, or an endless rack with thumpers under- 
neath. The latter two have advantage in lightness and 
amount of power required, and also in the steadiness by 
which the machine may be operated. 

323. Cleaning device. — To clean the corn and free it 
from chafif and husks a fan is provided which sends its 
blast through some form of sieve or rack. The corn sieve 
may be dispensed with and a single rack used. 

324. Grain elevator. — The grain on all portable ma- 
chines is elevated by a chain cup elevator into the wagon 
box. To carr}' the corn to the lower end of the elevator 
an auger is universally used. 

325. Cob carrier. — To carry the cobs from the sheller 
a single- or double-chain conveyor is used. It is an ad- 
vantage to have this swing from the sheller. 

326. Dustless sheller. — To carry the chafif and husks 
away from the sheller an auxiliary fan is provided on the 
larger machines to gather and discharge the dust and 
chafif at one point. A sheller so arranged is called a dust- 
less sheller. 

327. Shuck sheller. — A few of the spring shellers are 
arranged to handle partially husked corn, and many of 
the cylinder shellers are so arranged. The capacity of 
the machine is much reduced in handling snapped or un- 
husked corn. 



232 FARM MACHINERY 

328. Power. — The power required for a four-hole 
spring sheller is usually about eight horse. The six-hole 
machine requires about 10 and the eight-hole 12 to 14 
horse power. The power required for cylinder shellers 
varies with the style and manufacturer's number. 

329. Capacity. — The capacity of the spring sheller is 
determined by its size, which is denoted by the number 
of holes, which vary from, the one-hole hand-power ma- 
chine to the large eight-hole power sheller. A four-hole 
sheller is usually rated at 100 to 200 bushels an hour, the 
six-hole at 200 to 300, and the eight-hole at 300 to 600 
bushels an hour. The size of the cylinder sheller is de- 
noted by the manufacturer's number only. Cylinder 
shellers have a large capacity ranging up to 800 bushels 
an hour for the largest sizes. 

330. Selection of a sheller. — The following are the 
requisites for a good portable corn sheller. First and 
probably the most important feature to look to is the 
frame. This should be made very strong. It should be 
mortised and tenoned and secured together by means of 
rods or bolts. The wood should be either of ash or oak. 
The bearings for all parts where there is considerable 
power placed upon them should be long, well secured 
to the frame, and, where possible, made dust proof. They 
should also be supplied with plugs or oil cups to keep 
all grit and dust from entering. The feeding shaft should 
be strong, and the lugs should be of chilled cast iron or 
cast steel. The feeder box should be supplied with agi- 
tators to prevent the corn piling up at the lower end and 
thus allowing the sheller to run partially empty. For 
large job work the machine should be provided with a 
drag carrier of length from about 10 to 20 feet. Where 
the cribs are extra long it is well to have two sections of 
about this length. The rag irons should be separate 



CORN MACHINERY 233 

as well as a combined adjustment. The sheller should 
be so constructed that it will not injure it to throw 
the feeder box and the feeder bar into operation while 
running". On either side of the sheller there should be 
an attachment for a grain elevator. The mechanism 
for receiving the power should be so constructed that the 
power, if necessary, can be applied upon either side. The 
cob carrier should be of the swing type with long enough 
lugs on the chain and velocity enough to convey the cobs 
away without allowing them to choke at the base. In 
the sheller there should be plenty of surface for the cobs 
to pass over so the corn can all separate from them. 

In selecting a corn sheller and making the first trial, 
do not condemn the machine if it requires a large amount 
of power to run it. Possibly the fault is not in the sheller, 
but is in the condition of the corn. Corn which is green 
or damp requires very nearly, if not altogether, twice the 
power to shell it that dry corn requires. 



CHAPTER XII 
FEED MILLS 

331. Development. — The mill was one of the first in- 
ventions of man. Feeding of cracked or broken grain to 
domestic animals has been practiced for many years ; 
however, the practice did not become general until the 
introduction of the portable mill. The first mills were 
equipped with stone buhrs, but metallic plates were made 
use of at a very early date, for they have been mentioned 
in history. A description of a French mill using metallic 
buhrs is at hand which was used to grind grain for the 
soldiers in the army of Napoleon I. 

332. Buhrs and plates. — The grinding depends largely 
upon the buhrs or plates. They are the parts which do 
the actual grinding; receiving the whole grain, they 
gradually reduce it to a meal. 

The stone buhr is used to some extent to-day where a 
fine meal is desired. The meal from stone buhrs may be 
used for human food. Buhr stones must have a cellular 
structure to prevent them from taking on a polish and 
give them a better grip for grinding. The buhr stone 
must also be very tough. The best are imported and are 
known as French buhrs. Good buhr stones are quarried 
at Esopus, New York, and practically all of the buhr 
stones used in the United States come from this place. 
The buhr stone usually has a wrought-iron band shrunk 
over it to strengthen it. It must be sharpened with a 
chisel when worn, hence it is not popular for small farms. 

Metallic buhrs. — Nearly all of the plates used on farm 



FEED MILLS 



235 



mills or grinders are made of chilled iron, though tool 
steel and bronze arc used to some extent. 

Chilled iron plates or buhrs vary in shape, the usual 
form being two flat disks which are provided with rihs 
or corrugations to carry the grain to the outer edge be- 
tween the milling surfaces (Fig. 175). The cone buhr is 
the result of an attempt to increase capacity by increas- 
ing the surface. 

The steel buhr is made in the shape of a roller with a 
milled surface. The roller mills as used in flourimr mills 




FIG. 175 — CHILLED IRON BUHRS 



are not used in preparing feed for stock to any extent. 
It is stated that the steel buhr has a large capacity, but 
will fill or clog when damp grain is being ground. 

The duplex buhr has two grinding surfaces. The mov- 
ing plate moves between two stationary plates (Fig. 178). 

In order to grind ear corn a crusher is often provided to 
reduce the ears to pieces small enough to be fed to the 
buhrs. In sw-eep mills the crushing teeth are made a 
part of the main bidirs. 

333- Sweep mills. — The simple sweep mill consists of 
two conical bidirs. The inner one remains stationary, 



236 



FARM MACHINERY 



while the outer is rotated by a sweep. Nearly all sweep 
mills are arranged to grind ear corn. Fig. 177 illustrates 
a common type of the sweep mill. In order to increase 



i 




FIG. 176 UUIIKS FUK A SWEEP .MILL 



the capacity of the mill one of the buhrs is geared up 
until it makes 3, or even 9 to 11, revolutions for each 
round of the team. 




FIG. 177 — A SWEEP MILL 



334. The hitch. — The usual arrangement with the sim- 
ple sweep mill is to hitch the team to the end of the 
single sweep. Some makers arrange to hitch the horses 



FEED MILLS 237 

tandem, the claim being that the work is more evenly 
divuled between them, as they work upon an equalizer 
and each horse travels in the same circle. 

With triple-geared or higher-geared sweep mills the 
capacity for grinding is so great that two horses are not 
sufficient to furnish the power ; more horses must be 
added. The horses may be hitched in teams to sweeps 
opposite each other with an equalizer across or placed in 
tandem, as referred to. 

335. Combination mills, or mills in combinatioi^ with a 
small sweep power, are manufactured to enable the 
owner to drive other machinery such as a corn sheller. 
Such a mill is confined to the geared sweep type. 

POWER MILLS 

336. Power mills are operated by belt or tumbling rod. 
Following is a discussion of the important parts of power 
mills. 

A balance wheel is sometimes placed upon a mill to 
prevent the mill from choking due to an extra demand 
for power which will occur at times. The balance wheel 
is considered a good thing to have on a mill. 

Divided hopper. — It is often desired to grind at least 
two kinds of grain at a time. To accomplish this a 
divided hopper is provided. 

Safety device. — It often occurs that some hard sub- 
stance, as a nail or a nut, becomes mixed in the grain and 
is placed in the mill. The safety device is a wooden 
break pin or spring catch, which permits the buhrs to 
open without damaging the mill. 

The quick release is for the same purpose as the safety 
device, but is operated by hand. By its use the machine 
may be prevented from clogging when heavily loaded 
for any reason. 



238 



FARM. MACHINERY 



337. Sacking elevators. — When desired, all larger ma- 
chines may be obtained with a sacking elevator, provided 
with a divided spout, to which two sacks may be attached 
at a time. While one sack is filling, the other may be 
removed and an empty sack adjusted in its place. 

338. The selection of a feed mill. — Feed mills for farm 
purposes should have their frames constructed of cast 




FIG. 178 — A SECTIONAL VIEW OF A POWER MILL WITH DUPLEX BUHRS AND 
CRUSHING KNIVES 

iron, in such a way that there is no binding in the bearings 
and all bearings may be well protected from the dust. 
The buhrs should have a device to release them when 
some foreign substance, such as stones, nails, nuts, 
etc., enters the mills. Besides this safety device there 
must be another which is handy and will regulate the 



FEliD MILLS 239 

buhrs in a manner so they may be opened or closed 
according to the fineness to which the grain is to be 
ground. The buhrs should be attached to the shaft or 
mill in such a manner that they will not wobble and thus 
rub against each other under any condition whatever. 
This device should also be made substantial enough and 
accurate enough so the buhrs can be adjusted to almost 
any fineness and not interfere with each other. In a corn 
and cob grinder which is driven by a belt or tumbling 
rod, the hopper should be divided and should have a feed 
regulator so the ear corn and fine grain may be regulated 
as desired. There should also be a regulating device be- 
tween the crushing cylinder and grinding buhrs. This 
is quite often efifected by means of a lever and vibrating 
shutter, the former receiving its motion from the main 
shaft of the mill. 

339. Alfalfa mills are used in reducing alfalfa hay to 
meal suitable for poultry and other stock. The mill has 
a cutter which cuts the hay into short lengths before 
passing to the buhrs. Alfalfa may be ground in the corn 
mill if the hay is passed through a hay cutter first. To 
grind successfully, alfalfa hay should be very dry. The 
capacity of alfalfa mills varies from 50 to 100 pounds of 
ground alfalfa an hour for each horse power used. 

340. Capacity of feed mills. — The amount of feed 
ground an hour depends largely upon the degree of fine- 
ness of the ground meal and the condition of the grain as 
to moisture. It is to be expected that a mill with new 
sharp buhrs will have a much larger capacity than a mill 
with worn buhrs. Where a good quality of meal is pro- 
duced a mill should be expected to grind at least four to 
five bushels of corn, or two to three bushels of oats an 
hour for each horse power used. Grinding ear corn the 
capacity will be one-third less. 



240 FARM MACHINERY 

341. Corn crushers. — It is within only the past three 
or four years that the value of crushed corn has become 
generally known to the cattle feeders. One principal 
reason for this is that in crushing corn the crushers may 
be so arranged that the husks may be chopped with the 
ear. By this means the feeder is enabled to give his cat- 
tle snapped corn which is broken or crushed fine enough 
so it is practically a coarse shelled corn mixed with 
ground cob and husks. One great advantage derived 
from such a scheme is that the crushing of the corn can 
be done very cheaply, it requiring only two or three 
horse power to crush 40 or 50 bushels an hour. Several 
feed grinders for grinding corn and cob are provided with 
a separate crusher and it is a question if this is not the 
most profitable means of grinding the corn and cob. 



I 



CHAPTER XIII 
WAGONS, BUGGIES, AND SLEDS 

342. Development. — Carts and wagons were used at 
a very early date, for in the Book of Genesis we find that 
when Pharaoh advanced Joseph to the second place, "he 
made him to ride in the second chariot he had." The 
chariot is only a form of cart. Later in Joseph's time we 
find that he sent wagons out of the land of Egypt to 
convey Jacob and his whole family to the land of his 
adoption. Not only did they have wagons and chariots 
at a very early date, but they were of similar construction 
to those of the present, for in the Book of Kings we read, 
"And the work of the wheels was like the work of a 
chariot wheel ; their axletrees, and their naves, and their 
felloes, and their spokes were all molten." It is not 
known just when wheels were first bound with tires of 
iron, a practice which is of the greatest importance in the 
construction of the wheel. Wooden wheels without tires 
have been used in some countries until quite recently, and 
good authority states that they have a limited use to-day. 

The use of carriages for general purposes began in the 
eighteenth century, though steel springs were intro- 
duced as early as the fourteenth. In 1804 Obadiah El- 
liott invented the elliptical spring. It was early in the 
nineteenth century that the greatest development took 
place. During this period Telford and ^lacadam were 
able to establish a system of good roads in England. 

Carts for the hauling of loads are used to some extent 
in European countries and to a very limited extent in the 



242 



FARM MACHINERY 



United States. Their use in the Middle West, however, 
is very rare. The general use of teams and the advan- 
tages of the wagon for larger loads are responsible for 
this. 

WAGONS 



The essential features of a farm wagon are durability, 
convenience, lightness of weight and draft. These feat- 







't^£^^^ 



FIG. 179 — A MEXICAN CART OF 1865. IMPORTED IN 1883 BY MESSRS. 

SCHUTTLER AND HUTZ OF CHICAGO, AND DONATED LATER TO THE 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 

ures depend upon the material, workmanship, and con- 
struction used in building the wagon. 

343. Material. — Perhaps there is.no service to which 
material may be placed which is as exacting and as severe 




FIG. 180 — A MODERN FARM WAGON WITH BOX BRAKE 



I 



t 



WAGONS, BUGGIES, AND SLEDS 243 

as that required of material used in the construction of 
wagons and buggies. All wood should be carefully se- 
lected and thoroughly dried both in air and in kiln. 
Well-seasoned black birch is probably best for hubs ; 
best-seasoned white oak for spokes, felloes, bolsters, 
sandboards, and hounds ; hickory is preferable for axles, 




FIG. 181 — A SECTION OF A WAGON HUB SHOWING THREE METHODS OF 

FORMING THE SPOKE SHOULDERS. THE ROUND SHOULDERS ARE 

SAID TO BE MUCH STRONGER AND MORE DURABLE 



although the best straight-grained white oak is good. All 
metal parts should be of good Norway iron or mild steel. 
344. Wheels. — All wooden wheels should be dished or 
the outer face of the wheel should present a concave sur- 
face. The dish in the wheel makes it much stronger, 
which may be illustrated with a paper disk and a paper 
cone. The cone is much stifYer. For front wheels this 
dish should be from }i inch to ^ inch, and for rear 
wheels from 3^ to ^ inch. At one time, wheels were 
given much more dish than at present. An English 
writer states that cart wheels should be dished as much 
as 3 inches. By giving the wheels an excessive amount 



244 



FARM MACHINERY 



of dish, the cart bed may be made much wider. It does 
not matter greatly whether the felloes are bent or sawed, 
as the merits of the two methods are about equal. A- 
rivet should be placed on the side of each spoke to pre- 
vent splitting-. The felloes should be well doweled and 
the tire bolted to them. The standard height of wheels 
for a farm wagon with 3-inch skein or over is 3 feet 8 
inches for the front wheels, and 4 feet 6 inches for the 
rear wheels. Smaller wajrons have wheels of less 



1 




I 
1 



FIG. 182 — THE UPPER IS THE CAST; THE LOWER, THE STEEL WAGON SKEIN 

height. There is a tendency to use wheels of smaller 
diameter when wide tires are used. The thickness of 
the tire varies from Y^ inch to ^ inch. 

345. The axles should have as few holes in them as 
possible. Clips can nearly ahvays be used instead of 
bolts excepting for the king bolt. A well-secured truss 
rod should be placed beneath each axle, and it is better 
if it is secured to the skeins. 

The skein may be of either cast iron or steel. In level 
countries the former is preferable, while among the hills 
and mountains the latter with a long sleeve is probably 
more serviceable. Skeins should have a large throat to 



WAGONS, BUGGIES, AND SLEDS 245 

take in all the wood possible, since this is the weakest 
point in the axle. They should gradually taper towards 
the nut so they can be forced on perfectly tight and not 
have to be bolted, as this weakens the axle. 

346. Gather. — In setting the skeins the under si'de 
should be nearly parallel with the ground and the center 
of the nut end should be a trifle farther forward than the 
shoulder. The former is called bottom gather and the 
latter front gather. This is so that the wheel will not 
have a tendency to run towards the nut, to overcome the 
inclination of the dish of the wheel and keep the box rub- 
bing against the collar of the skein. If the front edges 
of the felloes are Vi inch closer together than the back, 
it is sufficient. 

347. Tire setting is possibly the most important part of 
wagon making, since the wheels invariably give out long 
before any other part. In purchasing a new wagon, it is 
difficult to tell whether the tires are properly set. How- 
ever, always avoid buying wheels that have more or less 
dish than stated above. When having tires reset, see 
that the smith cuts enough out of the felloe to allow it 
to draw up snugly on to the spokes and force the spokes 
into the hub perfectly. Do not allow him to cut out so 
much that when the felloe is drawn together the wheel is 
dished more than stated above. Should he not cut out 
enough of the felloe to accomplish the tightness just 
stated the wheel will be known as felloe bound and it 
will be only a short time until the spokes will rattle in 
the rim or squeak at the hub. 

348. The reach in itself is not such an important part, 
as any person can soon supply a new one. However, the 
way it is connected to the front axle and passes through 
the rear is very vital, since it will soon chafe in these 
places and eventually ruin the gears. See that there is 



246 FARM MACHINERY 

a plate on the under side of the sandboard and on top 
of the front axle, also see that there is a metal sleeve for 
the reach to pass through between the rear axle and bol- 
ster. 

'349. Tongue, neckyoke and whiffletrees are all essen- 
tial, but not so important in their construction. They 
should all be made of the best selected oak except the 
doubletrees, which should be of hickory. Wherever 
there is any wear there should be metal plates or collars. 
It is well that the tongue be reenforced by an iron strip 
beneath and that the pole cap have an extra kink in front 
of the neckyoke lock to prevent the neckyoke from slip- 
ping ofif. 

350. Other parts, — The same may be said of sand- 
boards and bolsters as of axles. Between sandboard and 
bolster there should be a cup and cone plate with flanges 
which extend over the sides to prevent splitting. On top 
of each bolster there should be a plate of metal. The 
king bolt should have a large, flat head to prevent cut- 
ting into the bolster. 

It does not matter so much as to the length and shape 
of the hounds, as it does to their bracing and faslening to 
the axles. Therefore see that they are well braced and 
so securely fastened that they will not work loose and 
soon wear at that point. 

351. Wide and narrow track, — Two widths of tracks 
are in general use in the United States. The narrow 
track measures 4 feet 6 inches center to center of tires on 
the ground. The wide track is 5 feet measured in the 
same way. Although the use of each track is confined to 
certain sections, it results in much inconvenience at the 
borders of the districts where both styles are used. 
It is necessary to specify the width of track when pur- 
chasing a vehicle of any sort. 



WAGONS, nUGGIES, AND SLEDS 247 

352. The box. — The wagon iiulependent of the box is 
often spoken of as the gear. The box, or what is some- 
times called the bed, may be removed and a hay rack or 
the gear may be used independently for the hauling of 
logs or lumber. The box of a narrow-track farm wagon 
is found to be the most convenient wben it is 3 feet wide 
and 10 feet long inside, and made up of three sections, 14, 
12, 10 inches deep. The second is spoken of as the top 
box and the third as the tiptop box. A box of the above 
dimensions will hold approximately two bushels for each 
inch in depth. A box of this size requires 3 feet 2 inches 
between the standards on the bolster, and is 10 feet 6 
inches long outside. The sides of the box should be of 
the best selected yellow poplar and the bottom of 3-inch 
quarter-sawed yellow pine flooring with oak strips on the 
under side. A metal plate should be riveted on where 
the bolster rubs, and a rub iron of good design and se- 
cure attachment should be placed where the front wheel 
rubs. A device should be provided to hold the box sec- 
tions securely together. 

353. Brakes. — Wagon brakes are required in hilly lo- 
calities. Two general types of wagon brakes are in use, 
the box brake or the brake attached to the wagon box, 
and the gear brake, attached to gear independent of the 
box, except that a lever attached to it is provided to be 
used when the box is used. The gear brake has two ad- 
vantages in that it does not weaken or injure the box in 
any way, when used, and it may be used when the gear is 
used without the box. The box brake has a tendency to 
chatter and loosen the floor of the box. 

354. Painting. — All of the wooden parts of the gears 
should be boiled in linseed oil and then one coat of paint 
applied before the ironing is done. The former process 
drives all moisture from the wood and fills the pores so 



248 



FARM MACHINERY 



the paint adheres well ; the latter keeps moisture from 
entering, thus preventing the wood from rotting under 
the iron. After ironing, two more coats of red lead 
paint should be added, then stripes, and finally a coat of 
wagon varnish. The box should be sandpapered, then 
painted with three coats of good pigment, after which it 
is striped and varnished. 

355. Capacity. — As a wagon is subjected to shocks, it 
must be designed to carry many times any load which 
may be placed upon it. The following table is the aver- 
age capacity of wagons as furnished by several manu- 
facturers : 



Wagons 


with Skeins 


With Steel Axles 


Size of Skein 


Capacity 


Size of Axle 


Capacity 


2% 


800 


ItV 


600 


2% 


1,000 


iy& 


800 


2H 


1,200 


1% 


1,200 


2H 


1,600 


m 


1,600 


2Va 


2,000 


I'A 


2,250 


3 


3,000 


iVs 


3,000 


3^4 


4,000 


iH 


4,000 


3/2 


5.500 


2 


5,000 


3->4 


6,500 


2% 


6,500 


4 


8,500 


2H 


9,000 


434 


10,000 


3 


15,000 


4/2 


12,000 







356. Draft of wagon. — The draft of a wagon is the 
resistance encountered in moving the wagon with its 
load. It is often called tractive resistance, and is worthy 
of careful consideration, for a reduction in the draft of 
wagons not only means increased efficiency on the part 
of the draft animals, but also a reduction in the cost of 
transportation. The draft of wagons is made up of three 
elements : (a) axle friction, (b) rolling resistance, and (c) 
grade resistance. 



WAGONS, BUGGIES, AND SLEDS 



249 



357. Axle friction is the resistance of the wheel turn- 
ing about its axle similar to the resistance of a journal 
turning" in its bearing, independent of the other elements 
of draft. Axle friction is usually a small part of the total 
draft. The power required to overcome it diminishes 
as the ratio between the diameters of the wheel and axle 
increases. Thus in Fig. 183 if R be the radius of the 
wheel, r the radius of the axle, from the principle of the 
wheel and axle — 



Power 

Power = 



Axle friction : : / 
Axle friction 



R 



R/t 



In the standard farm wagon R/r has a value of from ii 
to 20, or an average of about 15. 

Morin found in his experiments, which have been con- 
sidered a standard for 
years, that with cast-iron 
axles in cast-iron bearings 
lubricated with lard, oil of 
olives or tallow gave a co- 
efficient of friction of 0.07 
to 0.08 when the lubrica- 
tion was renewed in the 
usual way. Assuming 0.08 
to be the coefficient of fric- 
tion and 15 to be the ratio 
between wheel and axle 
diameters, the force re- 
quired per ton to overcome friction would be between 
10 and II pounds. Another authority* states that the 
tractive power required to overcome axle friction in a 
truck wagon which has medium-sized wheels and axles is 
about 3yi to 4>< pounds a ton. The use of ball and roller 

*1. O. Baker, "Roads and Pavements." 




FIG. I S3 



250 FARM MACHINERY 



bearings would tend to reduce the axle friction and man 
ufacturers trying to introduce these bearings claim a 
great reduction in draft. No doubt there are other ad- 
vantages in the use of ball and roller bearings beside a 
reduction in draft. It is not thought that the dished 
wheel and bent axle are of a construction that tends to 
reduce axle friction to a minimum. It is hoped that ex- 
periments will be conducted at an early date to deter- 
mine accurately the axle friction of wagons. 

358, Rolling resistance. — Rolling resistance corre- 
sponds to rolling friction in that it is due to the indenta- 
tion or cutting of the wheel into the road surface, which 
really causes the wheel to be rolling up an inclination or 
grade. The softer the road bed the farther the wheel 
will sink into it, and hence the steeper the inclination. The 
height of wheel influences the rolling resistance in that 
a wheel of large diameter will pass over an obstruction 
with less power, as the time in which the load is lifted is 
lengthened. There is also a less tendency upon the part 
of a large wheel to cut into the surface, due to the larger 
area presented at the bottom of the wheel to carry the 
load. Elaborate experiments have been conducted by 
T. I. Mairs, of the Missouri experiment station, in re- 
gard to the influence of height of wheel upon draft of 
wagons. Three sets of wheels were used with six-inch 
tires and a net load of 2,000 pounds was used in all cases. 
The total load for the high wheels was 3.762 pounds, 
for the medium wheels 3,580, and for the low wheels 
3.362. 

The high wheels were 44-inch front wheels and 56-inch hind wheels, 
medium " " 36 " " " " 40 " " 

" low " " 24 " " " " 28 " " 



1 



WAGONS, BUGGIES, AND SLEDS 



251 



EFFECT OF HEIGHT OF WHEELS ON DRAFT * 

Draft in Pounds per Ton 



Description of Road Surface 



Macadam; slightly worn, clean, fair con- 
dition 

Dry gravel road ; sand i inch deep, some 
loose stones 

Earth road— dry and hard 

" — thawing '/<-inch sticky mud. 

Timothy and bluegrass sod, dry, grass cut. 
" " " wet and spongy. . . 

Corn; field flat culture across rows, dry on 
top 

Plowed ground, not harrowed dry and 
cloddy 



HiKh 
Wheels 


Medium 
Wheels 


57 


61 


84 
69 

lOI 


90 

75 
119 


132 
173 


145 
203 


178 


201 


252 


303 



Low 
Wheels 



70 
IIO 

99 
139 
179 

281 

265 

374 



The width of tire also infltiences the rolling resistance 
to a great extent. The wide tire on a soft road bed is 
able to carry the load to better advantage and prevent the 
wheel ctitting in as far as it would otherwise. 

The rolling resistance as indicated in the above re- 
marks depends largely upon the condition of the road sur- 
face. The harder and smoother the road surface the less 
will be the rolling resistance. It is for this reason that 
much larger loads may be hauled upon good hard roads 
than upon poor soft ones. Prof. J. H. Waters, at the 
Missouri experiment station, has conducted extended ex- 
periments to determine the influence of the width of tire 
upon the draft of wagons when used on various road 
surfaces. The wheels used were of standard height and 
were provided with ij^^-inch and 6-inch tires. The sum- 
mary of the results of these experiments states that the 
wide tires gave a lighter draft except under the follow- 

* Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 52, 1901. 



252 



FARM MACHINERY 



ing conditions: (a) When the earth road was muddy, 
sloppy and sticky but firm underneath, (b) when the 
mud was deep and adhered to the wheels, (c) when the 
road was covered with deep loose dust, and (d) when 
the road was badly rutted with the narrow tire. 

INFLUENCE OF WIDTH OF TIRE UPON DRAFT* 

Draft in Pounds per Ton 



Description of Road Surface 


Width of Tire 


ii^-Inch 


6-Inch 


Broken stone road — hard, smooth, and no dust 

Gravel road — hard and smooth 


121 

182 

246 

QO 

149 

497 

286 

825 
466 


98 
134 


" " — wet, loose sand, i to 2^ inches deep. 

Earth road loam, dry dust, 2 to 3 inches deep 

" " " dry and hard, no dust 

" " " stiff mud, dry on top, spongy 
underneath 


254 
106 
109 

307 

406 

551 
323 


" clay, sloppy mud, 3 to 4 inches hard 
below 


" " clay, stiff, deep mud 


Plowed land harrowed smooth and compact 



Besides the reduction of draft attained in the majority 
of cases with the use of wide tires, there is another im- 
portant advantage from their use, as there is less ten- 
dency to rut and destroy the road surface. It is be- 
lieved that this feature should be placed before all others. 

There is a slight increase in draft with an increase in 
speed. Morin, who conducted experiments to determine 
the relation between draft and speed, found that the draft 
increased about as the fourth root of the speed. The 
draft upon starting a load is greater than after motion 
has been attained, and is due to the settling of the load 
into the road bed, the increased axle friction of rest, and 

* Missouri Agricultural Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 39, 1897. 



WAGONS, BUGGIES, AND SLEDS 



253 



the extra force required to accelerate the load. Springes 
tend to reduce draft, as they reduce the shocks and con- 
cussions due to the unevenness and irregularities of the 
road surface. Their effect is greater at high speeds than 
at lower. 

359. Grade resistance. — Grade resistance involves the 
principle of the inclined plane, and may be explained as 
the force required to prevent the load from rolling down 
the slope. It is independent of everything except the 
angle of inclination. 

In Fig. 184 if IV be the load and P the grade resistance, 
AB the height of the grade and CB the length, by com- 
pleting the force diagram similar triangles are obtained, 
from which it is seen : 

P : AB :: IV : AC, or P = IV X 4^ 

A C 

As AC is very nearly equal to BC for ordinary grades, 

no great error will be accrued by substituting BC for AC. 

Grades are usually expressed in the number of feet rise 

and fall in 100 feet, or in 

the number of per cent the 

total rise is of the length 

of the grade. Then for 

practical purposes the 

Fit;. 184 grade resistance is equal to 

the per cent of the total load, which expresses the grade. 

For example, if the grade is 5 per cent and the load 

2,000 pounds, the grade resistance will be 100 pounds. 

The foregoing analysis does not take into account the 

way the load is placed on the wagon or angle of hitch, 

which may lead to error. 

360. Handy wagons. — The name handy wagon is given 
to a low-wheeled, broad-tired wagon used about the farm 
for hauling implements, grain, and stock. They are used 




254 FARM MACHINERY 

to a limited extent in road transportation. Two styles 
of wheels are used, the metal with spokes cast in the hub 
and riveted into the tire, and a solid wooden wheel bound 
with a tire and provided with a cast hub. 

The metal wheel may be had in any height from 24 
inches up. The wheel with staggard oval spokes is con- 
sidered stronger than the straight spoke wheel, as it is 
able to resist side hill stresses to better advantage. 

The solid wooden wheel is very strong and there is no 
tendency for the wheel to fill with mud above the tire. 
The fact that the wheel proper is made of wood requires 
an occasional setting of tires, but this is not often, as the 
wheel is filled with circular wooden disks with the grain 
of the sections at right angles, and there is little shrink- 
age on account of the small diameter of the wheel. Four- 
or 5-inch tires are common widths used on handy wag- 
ons, although almost any width may be obtained. 

Some handy wagons are made very cheaply and sold at 
a very low price. These wagons are poorly ironed, do 
not have any front or rear hounds, and are poorly fin- 
ished. Others are made with as much care as the stand- 
ard farm wagon and are as well finished. Care should 
be used in the selection of a handy wagon. Although 
boxes may be used upon handy wagons the wagon used 
about the farm is usually equipped with a rack or a flat 
top which readily permits the loading of implements, 
fodder, etc. 

BUGGIES AND CARRIAGES 

361. Selection. — Light vehicles for driving have been 
in use since the introduction of springs and good roads. 
The points which make a buggy or a carriage popular are 
lightness, neatness of design, excellent and durable fin- 
ish, good bracing, a reliable fifth wheel, well-secured 



WAGONS, BUGGIES, AKD SLEDS 255 

clips, and a body sufficiently braced and stayed and, if 
SO provided, with a neat leather or at least leather ciuar- 
ter top. Leather quarter is the name given to tops made 
with leather sides above the curtains, while the roof is 
made of the cheaper material, rubber or oil cloth. 

It is very hard to detect c|uality in a buggy and the re- 
liability and guarantee of the manufacturer must be de- 
pended upon to a large extent. As in the construction 
of wagons and implements, poor (piality may be detected 
by poor workmanship used in the construction. Only 
the best materials, carefully cured, should be used in the 
construction. The wheels and other wood parts of the 



FIG. 185 — A LONG-I)IST.\NCE BUGGY AXLE. NOT£ THE PROVISION MADE TO 
EXCLUDE DUST AND DIRT 

gear should be made of best hickory. This is especially 
true of the wdieels, which must meet with very hard 
service. The rims of the wheels should be well clipped 
and screwed. 

362. The body or box should be made of the very best 
yellow poplar and should be well screwed and braced. 
The plain top Ijuggy has two common styles of bodies: 
the piano box, which is narrow and has the same height 
of panel all around, and the corning body, which has low 
panels just back of the dashboard. 

363. Hubs. — Two styles of hubs are in general use, 
the compressed hub with staggard spokes and the Sarven 
patent hub. The former is perhaps the stronger but 
more difficult to repair. 

There are many other parts which might be men- 



256 



FARM MACHINERY 



tioned, as the st3des of springs, spring bars, box loops, 
etc., but it is not deemed wise to take up space, 

364. The painting of a buggy is of great importance 
and should be done only by an expert. Several coats of 
filler should be used, and between coats it should be 



^ 



FIG 





186 A COMPRESSED 

WHEEL HUB 



FIG- I.S7 - A SAKVEN 
WHEEL HUB 



well sandpapered. In all, there should be 20 to 24 coats 
applied. It is stated that the varnish for the body should 
be first-grade copal, and for the gears second-grade copal, 
which should be very carefully rubbed between coats and 
the final coat should be rubbed with the palm of the 
hand. 

SLEDS 

365. Utility and selection. — Sleds were the first means 
of conveyance known to man, and among the uncivilized 
they are still the only conveyance. There has probably 
been as great a change made in the sled as in the wagon 
since man commenced to improve his machinery. 

Due to the variety of work required of sleds and the 
climatic conditions, there is almost invariably a different 
type of sled required in every locality. In heavily tim- 
bered countries where there is an extended season of 
snow, sleds are made with as much care as wagons, while 



WAGONS, BUGGIES, AND SLEDS 257 

in communities where sleds are used only at intermittent 
times of the year and then only as a substitute for a 
wagon with light loads, they are very much more cheaply 
built. 

\\'here the runners of a sled are bent they should be 
of either ash or hickory. If the natural curve of a tree 
is used, good hard wood will do. If the curve is sawed, 
white oak is better. All other parts should be of oak. 

The knees should be fastened by means of two bolts 
on each end. This will prevent splitting. All connec- 
tions are better if made flexible, and it is more convenient 
to have the front bob connected so it can turn under the 
load. The shoes are more economical when made of 
cast iron and removable. In communities where there 
is no continued season of snow a cheaper type of sled is 
sufficient. In such cases the shoes can be made of 
wrought iron, the bobs connected directly by a short 
reach and eyes, and the flexil:)le parts dispensed with. 

366. Capacity. — A bob sled with two knees in each 
bob ought to have a capacity of about 4,000 pounds, and 
one with three knees, of 6,000 pounds. 

There is practically no limit to the load a team can 
handle on a sled provided they can start it. In most 
cases it is better to carry a bar to assist in starting the 
load and thus avoid the troublesome lead team. 

In hilly countries it is essential to have some method 
for holding the load back in descending and to keep it 
standing while the team breathes upon ascending a hill. 
A short chain attached to the runner and dropped be- 
neath it will hold the load back when descending a hill. 
In some localities a curved spike extending to the rear is 
bolted to the sled in such a manner as to prevent the 
sled from sliding backward when pressed to the snow by 
the teamster. 



CHAPTER XIV 
PUMPING MACHINERY 



367. Early methods of raising water. — The oldest 
method of raising water was by bailing. The vessel and 
the water it contained were raised either by hand or by 
machines to which power might be applied. The buck- 
ets were provided with a handle or a rope when it was 
desired to draw water from some depth. To aid in draw- 
ing water from wells, the long sweep or lever weighted 

at one end was devised. This 
sweep is often seen illustrated 
in pictures of an old home- 
stead and similar pictures. Fol- 
lowing the sweep, a rope over 
a pulley with two buckets, one 
at each end, was used. Later, 
one bucket was used and the 
rope carried over a guide pul- 
ley and wound around a drum. 
This latter method of raising 
has not entirely disappeared 
and is still in use in many places. 

For raising water short distances and in large quantities, 
swinging scoops and flash wheels are used. The scoop 
is provided with a handle and is swung by a cord long 
enough to permit it to be dipped into the water. The 
water is simply pitched to a higher elevation much like 
grain is elevated. Flash wheels are the reverse of the 
undershot water wheel; the paddles or blades ascend- 
ing a chase or waterway carry the water along with 




I 



FIG. 188 — THE WELL SWEEP 
AN OLD METHOD OF RAIS- 
ING WATER 



PUMPING MACHINERY 259 

them. If operated by hand the paddles are hinged Hke 
valves and are rocked back and forth in the waterway. 
Flash wheels are used extensively in Holland in draining 
low lands. 

The Chinese devised at a very early time scoop wheels 
which have buckets on the periphery. These buckets dip 
into water and are set at such an incline that they carry 
almost their full capacity to the upper side, and there they 
pour their contents into a trough. They are sometimes 
hinged and are made to discharge their contents by strik- 
ing against a suitable guide. Wheels of this nature may 
now be used profitably where a large quantity of water 
is to be elevated for only short distances. 

One of the oldest water-raising devices made famous 
by history is the /\rchimedean screw. It consists essen- 
tially of a tube wound spirally around an inclined shaft 
and taking part in the rotation of this shaft. The pitch 
of the screw and the inclination of the shaft are so 
chosen that a portion of each turn will always slope 
downward and form a pocket. A certain quantity of 
water will be carried up the screw in these pockets 
as it is rotated. At the upper end of the inclined 
screw the water is discharged from the open end of the 
tube. 

368. Reciprocating pumps. — As advancement came 
along other lines of machinery, the early devices for 
raising water gave way to the introduction of more effi- 
cient machines to which may properly be given the name 
of pumps, the most common of which is the reciprocating 
pump. A reciprocating pump consists essentially of a 
cylinder and a closely fitting piston. 

369. Classes. — Reciprocating pumps may be divided 
into two classes : 

I. Pumps having solid pistons or plunger pumps. 



26o FARM MACHINERY 

2. Pumps having valves in the piston or bucket pumps. 

Plunger pumps will not be considered in this discus- 
sion, for, at the present time, their use is confined almost 
entirely to steam and large power pumps. Pumps used 
for agricultural purposes are almost universally of the 
latter type. 

Pumps may further be divided into tv;o distinct 
classes : 

1. Suction or lift pumps. 

2. Force pumps. 

Suction pumps do not elevate the water above the 
pump standard. The pump standard is the part which 
is above the well platform when, speaking of pumps for 
hand or windmill power. A pump will then necessarily 
include the standard, cylinder, and pipes. 

370. Pump principles. — Before continuing the discus- 
sion it will be well to take some of the principles con- 
nected with the action of pumps. The action of a plain 
suction pump when set in operation is to create a vacuum, 
and atmospheric pressure when the lower end of the suc- 
tion pipe is immersed in water causes the vacuum to be 
filled. Atmospheric pressure amounts to about 14.7 
pounds per square inch. Water gives a pressure of .434 
pound per square inch for each foot of depth, or each foot 
of head, as it is usually spoken of. Thus atmospheric 
pressure will sustain a water column only about 33.9 feet, 
above which a vacuum will be formed. Pumps will not 
draw water satisfactorily by suction more than 25 feet, 
and it is much preferred to have the distance less than 
20 feet. It is often an advantage to have the cylinder 
submerged. 

371. Hydraulic information. — The following informa- 
tion will be useful in making calculations involving 
pumping machinery : 



1 



k 



PUMPING MACHINERY 261 

A United States gallon contains 231 cubic inches. 

A cubic foot of water weighs 62.5 pounds. 

A gallon of water weighs Syi pounds. 

A cubic foot contains approximately yYj gallons. 

The pressure of a column of water is equal to its 
height multiplied by .434. Approximately the pressure 
is equal to one-half of the height of water column or head. 

Formulas for pump capacity and power: 

D = diameter of pump cylinder in inches. 
N 1= number of strokes per minute. 

H = total height water is elevated, figuring from the surface of 
suction water to highest point of discharge. 
S = length of stroke in inches. 
Q = quantity of water in gallons raised per minute. 

D" X .7854 X S = capacity of pump in cubic inches per stroke. 

D^ X S 

— — -— capacity of pump per stroke in gallons. 

294 

D^ X S 

,^ — capacity of pump per stroke in pounds of water. 

35-206 

D'XSXN . , . , . „ 
— —: capacity of pump per mmute m gallons. 

294 
D' X S X H X N 



35-268 



number of foot-pounds of work per minute. 



A rule which may be used to calculate roughly the 
capacity of a pump is as follows : The number of gal- 
lons pumped per minute by a pump with a lo-inch stroke 
at 30 strokes per minute is equal to the square of the 
diameter of the cylinder in inches. From this rule it is 
easy to calculate the capacity of a pump of a longer or 
shorter stroke and making more or less strokes per min- 
ute. 

372. Friction of pumps. — Pumps used to pump water 
from wells are of rather low efficiency; on an average, 
35 per cent of the power is required to overcome friction 



262 



FARM MACHINERY 



-HAT SLIDE BAR 



HANDLE PIN 



FULCRUM PIM 




^SnII fig. 190 — A CAST-IKON PUMP STANDARD, 



PIC_ 189— A SUCTION PUMP IN WITH THE COMMON NAMES FOR 



A WELL 



ITS PARTS 



PUMPINC. iMACIIINKRY 



263 



alone. Often as much as one-half or even more of the 
power is required for this purpose. A common rule in 
use to determine approximately the power rc(|uired to 
operate a farm pump is that one horse power is required 
to lift 30 gallons 100 feet per minute. From this rule it 
is easy to calculate for different capacities at more or less 
head. The rule assumes a mechanical efficiency of 68 
per cent on the part of the pump. 

The friction of water Mowing in pipes is also very 
great. The loss of head due to friction is proportional 
to the length of the pipe and varies about as the square 
of the velocity of the flow. It is greatly increased by 
angles, valves, roughness, and obstructions in the pipe. 

The following table given by Henry N. Ogden indi- 
cates the loss of head due to friction in pipes : 

LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO FRICTION* 



Flow in Gallons per 


Loss of Head by Friction in each loo Feet 
of Length 


Minute 


J'^-Inch Pipe 


1-Inch Pipe 


0.5 


4 




I.O 


7 


0.3 


2.0 


17 


0.7 


4.0 


54 


1.6 


7.0 


140 


5.3 


10. 


224 


9-3 



The importance of choosing a pipe of sufficient size 
for the flow per minute and the length of pipe is shown 
by this table. For instance, suppose it is desired to de- 
liver seven gallons a minute at a distance of 500 feet. 
The 3^-inch pipe would require an impractical head of 

* The Installation of Farm Water Supplies— Cyclopedia of American Agri- 
culture, Vol. I., page 294. 



264 FARM MACHINERY ' 



1 



700 feet, while i-inch pipe would need only about 26 feet 
of head to secure the desired flow. 

373. Wells. — The type of pump used will often depend 
upon the kind of well. Wells are divided into four 
classes : (a) dug or bored wells, (h) driven wells, (c) tubu- 
lar wells, and (d) drilled wells. Dug wells are those 
from which the earth is removed by a bucket, rope, and 
windlass. These wells are either walled with stone or 
brick or cased with wooden or tile curbing. Bored wells 
belong to the same class except the earth is removed 
from the well with an auger. Pumps for dug or bored 
wells are independent of the casing, and any common 
type may be used provided the cylinder is placed within 
the proper distance of the water. Driven wells are made 
by attaching a point with a screened opening to permit 
of a flow of water to the casing, usually i^-inch galvan- 
ized pipe, and the whole driven to sand or gravel strata 
bearing water. A driven well does not extend through 
rock strata. Tubular wells are made by attaching a 
cutting edge to the well casing, which is usually made 
of pipe 2 inches in diameter, and which is sunk into the 
opening made by a drill which operates inside of the 
casing. The earth and chips of stone are removed by a 
stream of water which flows out through the hollow drill 
rod in the form of a thin mud. A screened sand point 
similar to those used in driven wells is placed in the 
bottom of the well after it has been finished. A turned 
flange is provided wdiich prevents the point from pass- 
ing beyond the casing. A pit 6 feet deep and 4 feet 
square, walled with brick, stone, or cement, should be 
placed around driven and tubular wells to permit of the 
use of underground pumps, or to provide a vent hole to 
prevent water freezing in the pump standard during cold 
weather. It is an advantage to have the well at least 6 



PUMPING MACIIINKRY 265 

inches from one side of the pit wall, as this will permit 
the use of pipe tools to better advantage. 

Drilled wells are much like tubular wells except that 
they are larger, usually 6 or 8 inches in diameter, cased 
with wrought-iron pipe or galvanized-iron tubing. The 
pump is independent of the casing and may be removed 
w'ithout molesting it in any way. 

Pump cylinders or barrels usually form a section of 
the casing in driven and tubular wells. The lower check 
valve is seated below the barrel by expanding a rubber 
bush against the walls of the well casing in such a way 
as to hold it firmly in place. It is to be noted that wooden 
pump rods should be used for deep-driven and tubular 
wells, for wooden rods may not only be lighter, but 
displace a large amount of water, reducing the weight on 
the pump rod during the up stroke. 

374. Wooden pumps. — The first pumps were made of 
wood, simply bored out smoothly and fitted with a piston. 
The wood used was either oak, maple, or poplar. Later 
an iron cylinder was provided for the piston to work in. 
The better pumps of to-day belonging to this class have 
porcelain-lined or brass cylinders. These lined cylinders 
are smoother and are not acted upon by rust. Wooden 
pumps are nearly all lift pumps and can be used only in 
shallow w^ells. The cylinder is fitted in the lower end of 
the stock and no provision is made for lowering it. 
Wooden pumps are used with wooden piping, the ends of 
the pipe being driven into the lower end of the stock so 
as to form an air-tight joint. 

375. Lift pumps. — Lift pumps include all pumps not 
made to elevate water above the pump standard. For 
this reason the top of the pump is made open and the 
pump rod not packed, as is the case in force pumps. Lift 
pumps, in the cheaper types, are cast in one piece, the 



266 FARM MACHINERY 

handle and top set in one direction, which cannot be 
changed. Another style of light pump is made in which 
the lower part of the standard is a piece of wrought-iron 
pipe. The cast standard has one advantage in cold cli- 
mates, as it permits warm air from the well to circulate 
around the pipe where it extends into the standard and 
prevents freezing to a certain extent. 

376. Pump tops. — Pump tops are divided into two 
classes, known as hand and windmill tops. The former 
permits the use of hand power only, while with the latter 
the pump rod is extended so as to permit windmill con- 
nection. At least two methods are to be found for fasten- 
ing the pump top in place : set screws and ofifset bolts. 
The latter seem to give the best satisfaction, as they give 
more surface to support the top and are not apt to work 
loose from the jerky motion given to the pump handle. 
Windmill tops should be provided with interchangeable 
guides or bushes, which may be replaced when worn. 
This is not important, however, as very little wear comes 
upon the bushes, the forces being transmitted in a vertical 
direction only. 

377. Spouts. — Spouts are either cast with the pump 
standard or made detachable. They are styled by the 
makers plain, siphon or gooseneck, and cock spouts. 
The object of the siphon spout seems to be the securing 
of a more even flow of water from the pump. If the pump 
is a force pump, the spout should be provided with some 
means of making a hose connection. The cock spout is 
for this purpose, but a yoke hose connection or clevis 
may be used for the same purpose with a disk of leather 
in the place of the regular washer. 

378. Bases. — Like the spout, the base may be cast with 
the rest of the pump standard. However, there are two 
other types found upon the market: the adjustable and 



PUMPING MACHINERY 267 

split or ornamental. It is a great advantage in fitting the 
standard to a driven well to have the base adjustable, 
doing away with the necessity of cutting the pipe an 
exact length in order to have the base rest upon the 
pump platform or having to build the platform to the 
pump base. 

379. Force pumps. — Force pumps are those designed 
to force water against pressure or into an elevated tank. 
In order to do this the pump rod must be packed to 
make it air tight. Force pumps are also provided with 
an air chamber to prevent shocks on the pump.' It is 
common practice to use the upper part of the pump 
standard for the air chamber. It has a vent cock or a 
vent screw to permit the introduction of air when the 
pump becomes waterlogged. With tubular wells it is 
an- advantage to have a pump standard with a large open- 
ing its entire length and a removable cap to permit the 
withdrawal of the plunger or cylinder. The two most 
common methods of providing for this are to have the 
pump caps screwed on and to have the cap and the pump 
top in one piece. In the latter case the entire top is made 
air tight by drawing it down on a leather gasket or 
washer on the top of the standard. 

380. Double-pipe pumps or underground force pumps. 
This class of pump is used where the water is to be forced 
underground, away from the pump to some tank or reser- 
voir. These pumps are built with either a hand or a 
windmill top. A two-way cock is provided, manipulated 
from the platform to send the water either out of the 
spout above the platform or through the underground 
pipe. As the piston rod of these pumps has to be packed 
below the platform where it is not of free access, we 
find in use a method of packing known as the stufiing- 
box tul)e to take the place of the ordinary brass bush. 



268 



FARM MACHINERY 






R^ 



FIG. 191 — A DOUBLE PIPE OR UN- 
DERGROUND PUMP WITH STUFF- 
ING-BOX TUBE AND ADJUSTABLE 
BASE 



MP $AnTY V*LVe 
FIG. 192 — AN UNDERGROUND 

PUMP WITH ORNAMENTAL 
BASE AND EQUIPPED WITH A 
WINDMILL REGULATOR 



PUMPING MACHINERY 269 

The stuffing-box tube is nothing- more nor less than an 
auxiliary piston fitted with the regular leathers. The 
tube is always made of brass, and does not need attention 
as often as the regular stuffing box. 

381. Pump cylinders.— Three classes of pump cylin- 
ders are found upon the market: Iron, brass-lined, and 
brass-body. Iron cylinders are used mostly in shallow 
wells. Brass-lined and brass-body cylinders are the 
most desirable, as they work very smoothly and will not 
corrode in the least. Iron cylinders are often galvanized 
to prevent rusting. Brass-body cylinders have the cylin- 
drical portion between the caps made entirely of brass. 
Brass cylinders are easily damaged by being dented, and 
when so damaged cannot be repaired to good advantage. 
Brass being a soft metal, some difficulty is encountered 
in making a good connection between the cylinder and 
the caps by screw threads. In order to strengthen the 
brass-body cylinder at this point, the caps are often fitted 
on the cylinder by rods at the sides. 

Cylinders to be used inside of tubular or drilled wells 
are made with flush caps to enable a larger cylinder to be 
put into the Avell. 

382. Valves. — The valves of a pump are a very vital 
part. IMost valves are made of iron in the piston and 
leather in the cylinder cap. Brass often makes a better 
valve than iron, as it will not corrode. The valve com- 
monly used is known as a poppet valve, and may have 
one or three prongs. The single-pronged valve is not 
interfered with by sand to the same extent as the three- 
pronged. Ball valves are used in deep-well pumps, but it 
is very difificult to keep these valves tight. Various ma- 
terials are used out of which to make the valve seats. 
One large manufacturer manufactures valve seats of glass 
and makes many claims for their superiority. 



270 FARM MACHINERY 

Pump pistons are usually provided with only one cap 
leather for the piston. For high pressures more are 
needed, and in the better makes of deep-well pumps the 
pistons are provided with three or even four leathers. 

383. Pump regulators have a hydraulic cylinder at- 
tached, into which the pump forces water when the con- 
nection with the tank is cut oft by a float valve. The 
hydraulic cylinder is provided with a piston and a stuffing 
box and a piston rod. Connection is made by a chain 
to a quadrant on a weighted lever above the platform. 
This lever is also attached to the pull-out wire of the 
mill. All the water being forced into the hydraulic cylin- 
der, enough pressure is created to pull the mill out of 
gear. Safety valves are provided to prevent too great 
pressures coming on the hydraulic cylinder, which might 
cause breakage. 

384. Chain and bucket pumps. — Chain pumps have the 
pistons or buckets attached to a chain running over a 
sprocket wheel at the upper or crank end, and dip in the 
water at the lower. The buckets are drawn up through 
a tube, into which they fit and carry along with them 
the water from the well. The chain pump is suited only 
for low lifts. 

Another type of pump similar to the above and some- 
times styled a water elevator has buckets open at one 
end, attached to the chain. These are filled at the bottom 
and are carried to the top, where they are emptied. It 
is claimed the buckets carry air into the water and this 
has a beneficial effect. 

385. Power pumps are not used very extensively about 
the farm except for irrigation and drainage purposes. 
W hen the power is applied with a belt the pump is known 
as a belted pump. If provided with two cylinders, it is 
known as duplex; if three, triplex. The cylinders may 



I 



i 
I 



PUMPING MACHINERY 



271 



be single or double actin.q-. In double-acting- pumps the 
water is discharged at each forward and backward stroke. 
The capacity of a doul)le-acting' pump is twice that of a 
single-acting- pump. A direct-connected pump is on the 
same sb.aft with the motor or engine, or coupled thereto. 




riG. 193 — A ROTARY TUMP 



386. Rotary pumps are used to some extent in pump- 
ing about the iarn-i. They are not suited for high lifts, 
as there is too much slippage of the water past the 
pistons. They are not very durable, and it is doul)tful if 
they will ever come into extensive use. 

387. Centrifugal pumps are used where a large quan- 



272 



FARM MACHINERY 



tity of water is to be moved through a short lift, as in 
drainage and irrigation work. They are efficient machines 




FIG. 194 — SECTION OF A ROTARY PUMP SHOWING PISTONS 

for low lifts at least, and will handle dirty water better m 
than any other kind of pump. Centrifugal pumps are ' 




1 



FIG. 195 — CENTRIFUGAL PUMP 

made with either a vertical or a horizontal shaft. The 
pumps with a vertical shaft are called vertical pumps and 



PUMPING MACHINERY 



273 



may be placed in wells of small diameter. This class of 
pump gives but little suction and works the best when 
immersed in the water. 

388. The hydraulic ram. — Where a fall of water of 
sufficient head and volume is at hand, it may be used to 
elevate a portion of the flow of water to a higher eleva- 
tion. The action of a hydraulic ram depends upon the 
intermittent flow of a stream of water whose momentum 
when brought to rest is used in forcing a smaller stream 
to higher elevation. The ram consists essentially of 
(a) a drive pipe leading the water from an elevated source 
to the ram ; (b) a valve which automatically shuts ofif the 
flow of water from the drive pipe through the overflow, 
after sufficient momentum has been gathered by the 
water; (c) an air chamber in which air is compressed by 
the moving water in the drive pipe in coming to rest; 
and ((/) a discharge pipe of smaller diameter leading to 
the elevated reservoir. 



TABLE OF PROPORTIONATE HEAD, GIVING HIGHEST EFFICIENCY IN 
OPERATION OP HYDRAULIC RAM* 



To Deliver Water to 
Height of 


Place Ram under 


ConSucted Through 


20 feet above ram 
40 " 

80 

120 " " " 


3 feet Head of Fall 
5 " 
10 " " " 

17 " 


30 feet of Drive Pipe 

40 " 

80 " 

125 " 



Under the foregoing conditions about 12 times as much 
water will be required to operate ram as will be dis- 
charged. 

Hydraulic rams are manufactured in sizes to discharge 
from I to 60 gallons a minute, and for larger capacities 

♦ The Gould Companj', Chicago. 



274 



FARM MACHINERY 



rams may be used in batteries. To replenish the air in 
the air chamber, a snifting valve is placed on the drive 
pipe. In freezing" weather it is necessary to protect the 
ram by housing, and often artificial heat must be supplied. 
389. Water storage, — Owing to the fact that water 
must in nearly all cases be pumped at certain times which 




HYDRAULIC RAM IN OUTLINE 



may vary greatly in the intervals between each other, 
some form of water storage must be had in order to 
secure at all times an adequate supply to meet the con- 
stant needs. It is not only necessary to have a supply 
to furnish water for stock and household needs, but also 
for fire protection. 

390. Amount of water needed. — The amount of water 
required for household purposes with modern conven- 
iences has been found to be about 20 gallons a person, 
large or small. A horse will drink about 7 gallons a 
day and a cow 5 to 6 gallons. From this data the amount 
of water used a day may be estimated. If a windmill is 



PUMPING MACHINERY 275 

used to pump the water, three to four days' supply should 
be stored to provide for a calm. If a gasoline engine is 
used, it will not be necessary to store for so long an in- 
terval. Two systems of storing water are now in use : the 
elevated tank and the pneumatic tank. 

391. Storage tanks. — The elevated tank may be placed 
outside on a tower, or in the building ui)()n an upper 
floor. The objection to placing a tank in a building 
is the great weight to be supported. It has the advan- 
tage of being protected from dirt and the weather. 
The elevated tank on a tower is exposed to freezing in 
winter and to the heat of the sun in summer. Further- 
more, a tower and a wooden tank are not very durable. 
The elevated tank is cheaper than the pneumatic system 
where a large amount of storage is desired. A reservoir 
located on a natural prominence, when such a location 
can be secured, offers many advantages in the way of 
capacity and cheapness. 

The pneumatic or air-pressure system has an inclosed 
tank partly filled with air and partly with water. When 
filled the air is under pressure, and, being elastic, will 
give the same kind of pressure to the water as an elevated 
tank. One of the principal advantages of the air-pressure 
system is that the tank may be buried in the ground or 
placed in the cellar in a cool place. The disadvantage is a 
limited capacity for the cost. 

If water be pumped into a closed tank, until the tank 
is half full, the air contained will give a pressure of about 
15 pounds a square inch, which is sufficient to force the 
water to a height of 2)?^ feet. Air in the tank follows the 
well-known law of gases known as P>03de's law — pressure 
X volume = constant. If the air be pumped to a pressure 
of 10 pounds before the introduction of the water, the 
maximum discharge from the tank will be had at the 



276 FARM MACHINERY 

common working pressures. The water capacity of a 
tank will not be more in any case than two-thirds the 
total capacity of the tank. As the water continually dis- 
solves a certain amount of the air, or, rather, carries the 
air out with it, it is necessary to supply air to the tank 
from time to time. Pumps are now arranged with an 
auxiliary air cylinder to supply this air. 

It is not advisable to pump air to pressure because it 
is very slow work, as each cylinderful must be compressed 
before any is forced into the tank. 

Air-pressure tanks must be very carefully made, as air 
is very hard to contain, much more difficult than steam. 



4 



CHAPTER XV 

THE VALUE AND CARE OF FARM MACHINERY 

392, Value and cost. — Few realize the enormous sums 
spent annually by the farmers of the United States for 
machinery. Of the $2,910,138,663, the value of all crops 
raised in 1899, about 3.4 per cent was spent for 
machinery. The total amount of money invested in ma- 
chinery was $749,775,970. The following is the census 
report of the value of machinery manufactured each 
census year since 1850: 

Year Total for U. S. Year Total for U. S. 

1850 $6,842,611 1880 $68,640,486 

i860 20,831,904 1890 81.271,651 

1870 42,653,500 1900 101.207,428 

In closing, it is fitting that the subject of the care of 
farm machinery be considered, for one reason at least. 
The American farmers buy each year over $100,000,000 
worth of machinery, which is known to be used less effi- 
ciently than it should be. The fact that farm machinery 
is poorly housed may be noticed on every hand. Even 
the casual observer will agree that if machines were 
housed and kept in a better state of repair they would 
last much longer and do more efficient work. It has been 
stated by conservative men that the average life of the 
modern binder is less than one-half what it should be. 

The care of farm machinery readily divides itself into 
three heads : First, housing or protecting from the 
weather; second, repairing; third, painting. 



278 FARM MACHINERY 

393. Housing. — Many instances are on record where 
farmers have kept their tools in constant use by good care 
for more than twice the average life of the machine. The 
machinery needed to operate the modern farm represents 
a large investment on the part of the farmer. This should 
be considered as capital invested and made to realize as 
large a dividend as possible. The following is a list of 
the field tools needed on the average 160-acre farm and 
their approximate value : 

I grain binder $125.00 

I mower 45-00 

I gang plow 65.00 

I walking plow 14.00 

I riding cultivator 26.00 

I walking cultivator 16.00 

I disk harrow 30.00 

1 smoothing harrow 17.00 

2 farm wagons 150.00 

' I corn planter 42.00 

I seeder 28.00 

I manure spreader 130.00 

I hay loader 65.00 

I hay rake 26.00 

I light road wagon 60.00 

I buggy 85.00 

Total $924.00 

In addition to the above, miscellaneous equipment will 
be needed which will make the total over $1,000. If not 
protected from the weather, this equipment would not do 
good work for more than five years. If well housed, 
every tool ought to last 12 years or longer. It is obvious 
that a great saving will accrue by the housing of the 
implements. An implement house which will house these 
implements can be built for approximately $200, and it is 



THE VALUE AND CARE OF FARM MACHINERY 279 

to be seen that it would prove to be a very good invest- 
ment. 

Sentiment ought to l)e such that the man who does not 
take good care of his machinery will be placed in the 
same class as the man who does not take good care of his 
live stock. 

394. Repairing. — Repairs should be made systemati- 
cally, and. as far as possible, at times when work is not 
rushing. It is necessary to have some system in looking 
after the machines in order that when a machine is to be 
used it will be ready and in good repair. In putting a 
machine away after a season's work, it is suggested that 
a note be made of the repairs needed. These notes may 
be written on tags and attached to the machine. During 
the winter the tool may be taken into the shop, with 
wdiich every farm should be provided, and the machine 
put in first-class shape, ready to be used upon short notice. 
It is often an advantage not only in the choice of time, 
but also in being able to give the implement agent plenty 
of time in which to obtain the repairs. Often repairs, 
such as needed, will have to come from the factory, and 
plenty of time should be allowed. 

395. Painting. — Nothing adds so much to the appear- 
ance of a vehicle or implement as the finish. An imple- 
ment may be in a very good state of repair and still give 
anything but that impression, by the faded condition of 
its paint. Paint not only adds to the appearance, but 
also acts as a preservative to many of the parts, especially 
if they are made of wood. 

As a rule, hand-mi.xed paints are the best, but there 
are good brands of ready-mixed paints upon the market, 
and they are more con\-enient to use than the colors mixed 
with oil. It is the practice. in factories, where the pieces 
are not too large, to dip the entire piece in a paint vat. 



28o FARM MACHINERY 

After the color coat has dried, the piece is striped and 
dipped in the same way in the varnish. This system is 
very satisfactory when a good quality of paint is used. 
It is not possible here to give instructions in regard to 
painting. It might be mentioned, though, that the sur- 
face should in all cases be dry and clean before applying 
any paint. 



FARM MOTORS 

PART II 



INTRODUCTION 

396. Motors. — The application of power to the work of 
the farm largely relieves the farmer from mere physical 
exertion, but demands of him more skill and mental ac- 
tivity. At the present time practically all work may be 
performed by machines operated by power other than 
man power. This change has been important in that it 
has increased the efficiency and capacity of one man's 
work. Farm Machinery has been a discussion of the 
machines requiring power to operate them, while Farm 
Motors will be a discussion of the machines furnishing 
the power. The number of machines requiring power 
to operate them is increasing very rapidly. They re- 
quire the farmer to understand the operation and care of 
the various forms of motors used for agricultural pur- 
poses. 

397. Energy may be defined as the power of producing 
change of any kind. It exists in two general forms : 

1. Potential or stored energy, an example of which is the energy 

contained in unburned coal. 

2. Kinetic or energy of motion, an example of which is the 

energy of a falling body. 

Sources of energy. — Following are some of the sources 
of energy available for the production of power. 



282 FARM MOTORS 

Potential : 

1. Fuel. 

2. Food. 

3. Head of water. 

4. Chemical forces. 

Kinetic or actual : 

1. Air in motion, or the wind. 

2. The waterfall. 

3. Tides. 

The energy found in the forms just mentioned must 
be converted into a form in which it may be applied to 
machines for doing work. This change of the energy 
from one form to another is spoken of as the transforma- 
tion of energy. 

The law of transformation of energy holds that when a 
definite amount of energy disappears from one form a 
definite amount appears in the new form, or there is a 
quantivalence. 

Prime movers are those machines which receive energy 
directly from natural sources and transmit it to other 
machines which are fitted for doing the various kinds of 
useful work. 

398. Forms of motors: 

1. The animal body. 

2. Heat engines — 

Air, 

Gas or vapor, 

Steam, 

Solar. 

3. Water wheels. 

4. Tidal machines. 

5. Windmills. 

6. Electrical motors. 

Of the above all are prime movers except the last 
named, the electrical motors. The energy for the animal 



1 



INTRODUCTION 283 

body is derived from the food eaten. This undergoes 
a chemical change during the process of digestion and 
assimilation, and is transformed into mechanical energy 
by a process not fully understood. Heat engines make 
use of the heat liberated by the chemical union of the 
combustible constituents of fuel and oxygen. Water 
wheels, tidal machines, and windmills utilize the kinetic 
energy of masses of moving water or air. Electrical 
motors depend either upon chemical action or a dynamo 
to furnish the energy, it being necessary to drive the lat- 
ter with some form of prime mover. 

Only such motors as are well adapted to agricultural 
purposes will be considered in this treatise. 



CHAPTER XVI 

ANIMAL MOTORS 



399. The animal as a motor. — Although the animal dif 
fers from other forms of motors, being an animated thing, 
it is possible, however, to consider it as a machine in 
which energy in the form of food is transformed into me- 
chanical energy, which may be applied to the operation 
of various machines. The animal as a motor is excep- 
tionally interesting to those who have made a study of the 
transformation of heat energy into mechanical energy, 
for this is really what takes place. Combustible matter 
in the form of grain and other foods is consumed with the 
resultant production of carbon dioxide or other products 
of combustion in various degrees of oxidation, and, as 
stated before, mechanical energy is made available by 
a process not clearly understood. 

Viewed from the standpoint of a machine, the animal 
is a wonderful mechanism. Not only is it self-feeding, 
self-controlling, self-maintaining and self-reproducing, 
but at the same time is a very efficient motor. While the 
horse is like heat engines in requiring carbonaceous fuel, 
oxygen, and water for use in developing energy, it is 
necessary that combustion take place in the animal body 
at a much lower temperature than is possible in the heat 
engine, and a much smaller proportion of the fuel value 
is lost in the form of heat while the work is being done. 
The animal is the onl}^ prime mover in which combustion 
takes place at the ordinary temperature of 98° F. For 
this reason the animal is one of the most efficient of prime 



n 
\ 



ANIMAL MOTORS 285 

movers. That is, a large per cent of the energy repre- 
sented by the food eaten is converted into work, a larger 
per cent than is possible to realize in most motors. Pro- 
fessor Atwater in his recent experiments found the 
average thermodynamic efficiency of man to be 19.6 per 
cent. Experiments conducted by the scientist Hirn have 
shown the thermodynamic efficiency of the horse to 
be about 0.2. The best steam engines give an efficiency 
equal to this, but the average is much below. Internal- 
combustion engines will give a thermal efficiency from 20 
to 30 per cent. 

400. Muscular development. — It is possil)le to consider 
the animal as a motor, but the animal is made up of a 
great number of systems of levers and joints, each sup- 
plied with a system of muscles which are in reality the 
motors. Muscles exert a force in only one way, and that 
by shortening, giving a pull. For this reason muscles 
are arranged in pairs, as illustrated by the biceps and tri- 
ceps, which move the forearm. It is not clearly under- 
stood just how muscles are able to exert forces as they 
do when stimulated by nerve action. The theory has 
been advanced that the shortening of the muscles is due 
to a change of the form of the muscular cell from an 
elongated form to one nearly round, produced by pressure 
obtained in some way within the cell walls. There is no 
doubt but there is a transformation of heat energy into 
mechanical energy. While at work and producing mo- 
tion there is but little change in the temperature of the 
muscles, but when the muscles are held in rigid contrac- 
tion, there is a rise in temperature. Another author* has 
likened this to a steam plant, which while at work con- 
verts a large portion of the heat generated in the fire 
box into mechanical energy, but as soon as the engine is 
*F. H. King, in "Physics of Agriculture." 



286 FARM MOTORS 

Stopped and the flow of steam from the boiler stopped 
the temperature rises rapidly. 

401. Strength of muscles. — All muscles act through 
ver}- short distances and upon the short end of the levers 
composing the animal frame. Acting in this way speed 
and distance are gained with a reduction m the magnitude 
of the force. A striking example of the strength of a 
muscle is that of the biceps. This muscle acts upon the 
forearm, while at a right angle with the upper arm. as 
a lever of the second class, with a leverage of i to 6. That 
is. the distance from the point of attachment of the mus- 
cle to the elbow is but one-sixth of the distance from the 
hand to the elbow. A man is able to hold within the 
hand, with the forearm horizontal, as explained, a weight 
of 50 pounds, necessitating an exertion of a force of 300 
pounds by the mitscle. Attention may also be called to 
the enormous strength of muscles of a horse as they act 
over the hock joint while the horse is exerting his maxi- 
mum effort, in which case the pull of the muscles may 
amount to several thousand pounds. 

It is because muscles are able to act only through very 
short distances that it is necessary- for them to act upon 
the short end of the levers in order to secure the proper 
speed or sufficiently rapid movement. 

402. Animals other than horse and mule used for 
power. — Dogs and sheep are used to a very limited extent 
in the production of power by means of a tread power 
similar to the one shown in Fig. 200 for horses. These 
may be used to furnish power for a churn or some other 
machine requiring little power. The use of cattle for 
power and draft has been practically discontinued in 
America. An ox at work will travel only about two- 
thirds as fast as a horse. 

403. Capacity. — A man working a crank or winch can 



I 



ANIMAL MOTORS 287 

develop power at his maximum rate. It is also possible to 
develop power at very nearly the maximum rate while 
pumping. A large man working at a winch can exert 
0.50 horse power for two minutes and one-eighth horse 
power by the hour. It is stated that an ox will develop 
only about two-thirds as much power as a horse, owing 
to the fact that he moves at a much slower speed. 

404. The horse is the only animal used extensively at 
present as a draft animal or for the production of power. 
As reported in the Twelfth Census, the number of horses 
and mules on the farms in the United States was 15,517,- 
052 and 2,759,499, respectively, making a total of 18,- 
276,551 animals. If it be assumed that each animal de- 
velop two-thirds horse power, the combined horse power 
while at work would be 12.184,366, an excess of 184,285 
horse power over that used for all manufacturing pur- 
poses during the same year, 1900. 

From a consideration of the skeleton and muscular 
development, it is perceived that the horse is an animal 
specially well adapted to dragging or overcoming hori- 
zontal resistances rather than for carrying loads. With 
man it is different. Although greatly inferior in weight, 
man is able to bear a burden almost as great as that of a 
horse, while at dragging he is able to exert only a small 
horizontal effort, even when the body is inclined well for- 
ward. The skeleton of man is composed of parts super- 
imposed, forming a column well arranged to bear a 
burden. The horse is able to d;'aw upon a cart a 
load many times his own weight, while he is unable to 
carry upon his back a load greater than one-third his 
weight. 

It is to man's interest that his best friend in the brute 
world should be strong, live a long life, and waste none 
of his vital forces. Much attention has been given to the 



288 FARM MOTORS 

development of breed in horses. The result is a great 
improvement in strength, speed, and beauty. But while 
attention has been turned to developing horses capable 
of doing better work, few have tried to improve the con- 
ditions under which they labor. 

That the methods are often unscientific can be pointed 
out. In England, T. H. Brigg, who has made a study of 
the horse as a motor, and to whom we must give credit 
for the preceding thought, states that the horse often 
labors under conditions where 50 per cent of his energy is 
lost. It is a very strange thing that men have not studied 
this thing more, in order that people might have a better 
understanding of the conditions under which a horse 
is required to labor. 

The amount of resistance which a horse can overcome 
depends on the following conditions : First, his own 
weight ; second, his grip ; third, his height and length ; 
fourth, direction of trace ; and fifth, muscular develop- 
ment. These will be taken up in the above order. 

405. Weight. — The heavier the horse, the more ad- 
hesion he has to the ground. The tendency is to lift the 
forefeet of the horse from the ground when he is pulling, 
and thus a heavier horse is able to use his weight to good 
advantage. It is to be noted that often a horse is able 
to pull a greater load for a short time when he has upon 
his back one or even two men. Experienced teamsters 
have been known tO make use of this method in getting 
out of tight places with their loads. 

406. Grip. — That the weight adds to the horse's grip 
is self-evident, but cohesion is not the same thing as grip. 
Grip is the hold the horse is able to get upon the road 
surface. It is plain that a horse cannot pull as much 
while standing on ice as on solid ground unless his grip 
is increased by sharp calks upon his shoes. A difiference is 



ANIMAL MOTORS 289 

to 1)6 noticed in roads in the amount of ^viy) which a horse 
may get upon the surface while pulling a heavy load. 
Under ordinary circumstances the improved stone road 
will not provide the horse with as good a grip as a com- 
mon earth road. 

407. Height and length. — A low, rather long-bodied 
horse has much the advantage over a tall, short horse 
for heavy draft work. He has his weight m a position 





jsStttl^M 




h',-.^ .■/^■M\ 


F 


mmMm 



) ii,. HJ7 — OllTAIMNf; THE WORK OF A HORSE WITH A REC0R1IIX(, 
DYNAMOMETER 

where he can use it to better advantage. It is an ad- 
vantage to have the horse's weight well to the front, since 
there is a tendency, as mentioned before, to balance his 
weight over his rear foot as a fulcrum. Horses heavy 
in the foreshoulder have an advantage in pulling over 
those that are light, as weight in the foreshoulder adds 
greatly to the ability of the horse to pull. To prove that 
this is true, it is only necessary to refer to the fact that 
horses when pulling extend their heads well to the front. 
408. Direction of trace. — A heavy load may be lifted by 
a common windlass if the pull be vertical, but if the pull 
be transferred over a pulley and carried off in a horizontal 
direction the machine must be fastened or it will move. 
It must be staked and weighted to prevent slipping. This 



290 



FARM MOTORS 



same principle enters into the discussion of the draft of a 
horse. As long as the trace is horizontal, the horse has 
to depend upon his grip and his weight only to furnish 
enough resistance to enable him to pull the load. But if 
the trace be lower than horizontal the tendency is then to 
draw the horse on to the ground and thus give him 
greater adhesion. If the horse has sufBcient adhesion to 
pull a load without lowering the trace it is to his ad- 
vantage because the draft is often less in this case than 
any other. 

409. Line of least draft. — When the road bed is level 
and hard, the line of least draft to a loaded carriage is 
nearly horizontal because the axle friction is but a small 
part of the weight. 




Thus in Fig. 198, if AO represent by direction and mag- 
nitude the weight upon the axle, and OB in like manner 
the resistance of friction, the direction of the least force 
required to produce motion will be perpendicular to AB, 
a line joining the two forces. The angle that the line of 
least draft makes with the horizontal is named in me- 
chanics, the angle of repose. If the resistance of friction 
be that of sliding friction and not that of axle friction, the 
angle of repose will be much greater. 



ANIMAL MOTORS 29 1 

If the road surface be inclined, it will be found that 
the line of least draft is nearly parallel to the road surface. 
If the trace is inclined upward from the line of least 
draft there is a tendency to lift the load ; if the line of 
draft is inclined downward there is a tendency to press 
the load on the surface. Furthermore, it is found that 
roads are not perfectly level and there are obstructions 
over which the wheels of vehicles must pass, or, in other 
words, the load at times must pass up a much greater in- 
cline than a general slope indicates, and hence this calls 
for a greater angle of trace than will be needed for level 
or smooth road. Teamsters find in teaming over roads 
in one locality that they need a different angle of trace 
than they find best in another, because the grades of the 
roads are dififerent. 

410. Width of hock. — As mentioned before (405) prac- 
tically all of the pull a draft horse exerts is thrown upon 
his hind legs and for this reason the form and strength 
of this part must be considered in the selection of a horse 
for draft purposes. If the hock is wide or, in other words, 
if the projection of the heel bone beyond the joint is 
large, the muscles will be able to straighten the limb 
under a greater pull than if the projection is small; thus 
the ability of the horse to overcome resistance will be 
increased. Thus there are many things to be considered 
in the selection of a draft horse. The general make-up of 
a horse built for speed is notably different from one built 
for draft purposes. 

411. The horse at work. — \\hen a horse is required to 
exert the maximum effort, it is necessary to add to his 
adhesion or grip so that he may be able to exert his 
strength to a limit without any slipping or without a 
tendency to slip. But if the horse is loaded all the time, 
either by a load upon his back or a low hitch, he is at 



292 FARM MOTORS 

times doing more work than necessary. In fact, a 
certain amount of efifort is required for the horse to 
stand or to walk even if he does no work at all. This 
has led men to think that if the hitch could be so ar- 
ranged as to relieve the horse entirely of neck weight at 
times or even raise his trace the horse would be able 
to accomplish more in a day of a given length. In fact, 
it might be even an advantage to carry part of the weight 
of the horse. Although not a parallel case, it is some- 
times pointed out that a man can go farther in a day when 
mounted on a bicycle than when walking. Walking in 
itself, both for man and beast, is labor, and in fact walk- 
ing is like riding a wheel polygonal in form, and each time 
the wheel is rolled over a corner, the entire load must be 
lifted only to drop again as the corner is passed. Whether 
or not there are any possibilities in the development of a 
device along this line to conserve the energy of the horse 
we do not know; however, the argument seems very 
good. Mr. Brigg, of England, has devised an appliance 
for applying to vehicles with thills which will in a meas- 
ure accomplish the result referred to; that is, the horse on 
beginning to pull will be gradually loaded down,. thus per- 
mitting him to overcome a greater resistance. 

412. Capacity of the horse. — The amount of work a 
certain horse is able to do in a day is practically a con- 
stant. Large horses are able to do more work than 
smaller ones, but a given horse can do only about so much 
work in a day even if he is given a long or a short time 
in which to do it. Not only is the ability to do work 
dependent upon the size, but also upon the natural 
strength, breed, health, food, environment, climate, adap- 
tation of the load, and training of the horse. A horse 
with maximum load does minimum work, when traveling 
at maximum speed he can carry no load, so at some inter- 



i 

i 



ANIMAL MOTORS 293 

mediate point the horse is able to do the maxinuini 
amount of work. 

413. Best conditions for work. — The averaj^e horse will 
walk from 2 to 2}^ miles an hour, and at the same time 
overcome resistance equal to about one-tenth or more 
of his weight. Work may be perfoi^ied at this rate for 
ten hours a day. Assuming the above to be true, a 1,500- 
pound horse will perform work at the rate of one horse 
power. 

As 1,500 pounds is much above the average weight of 
a farm horse the average horse whose weight is not far 
from 1,100 will do continuous work at the rate of about 
2/^ to 4/5 horse power. 

414. Maximum power of the horse. — Entirely different 

from other motors, the horse, for a short time at least, is 

able to perform work at a very much increased rate. A 

horse when called upon may overcome resistance equal 

to one-half his weight, or even more. The horse power 

developed will be as follows, assuming that he walk at 

the rate of 23/2 miles an hour (see Art. 20) : 

„ ^ 1,500 x^ X 21^X5,280 

Jrl. r. = 5 

33,000 

A horse will be able to do work at this rate for short 
intervals only. The fact that a horse can carry such a 
heavy overload makes him a very convenient motor for 
farm purposes. 

The maximum effort or power of traction of a horse is 
much greater than one-half his weight. A horse weigh- 
ing 1,550 pounds has been known to overcome, when pull- 
ing with a horizontal trace, a resistance of 1,350 pounds. 
With the point of hitch lowered until the trace made an 
angle of 27° with the horizontal, the same horse was able 
to give a draft of 1.750 pounds. It is believed, however, 
that this horse is an exception. 



294 FARM MOTORS 

415. Effect of increase of speed. — As stated before, a 
horse at maximum speed cannot carry any load, and as 
the speed is increased from the normal draft speed, the 
load must be decreased. It is stated that the amount of 
work a horse is capable of doing in a day is constant 
within certain limits, varying from one to four miles an 
hour. Assuming this, the following equation holds true : 

2^/2 X traction at 2Y2 miles = miles per hour X traction. 

416. Effect of the length of working day. — Within 
certain limits the traction a horse is able to exert varies 
inversely with the number of hours. When the speed re- 
mains constant the traction may be determined approxi- 
mately by the following equation, provided the length of 
day is kept between five and ten hours. 

10 hours X i/io weight of horse := number of hours X traction. 

417. Division of work. — It may not be absolutely true 
that the ability of a horse to do work depends largely 
upon his weight, nevertheless it is not far from correct. 
It is not advisable to work horses together when differing 
much in size, but it is often necessary to do so. When 
this is done the small horse should be given the ad- 
vantage. In determining the amount of the entire load 
each horse should pull when hitched to an evener it may 
be considered a lever of the second class ; the clevis pin 
of one horse acting as the fulcrum. From the law of me- 
chanics (see Art. 24) : 

Power X power arm := weight X weight arm. 

Example: Suppose two horses weighing 1,500 and 
1,200 pounds respectively are to work together on an 
evener or doubletree 40 inches long. If each is to do a 
share of the work proportionately to his weight, it will be 
possible to substitute their combined weight for the total 



I 



ANIMAL MOTORS 



295 



draft and the weight of the larger horse for his share of 
the draft in the general equation and consider the smaller 
horse hitched at the fulcrum : 

2,700 X long arm of evener = 1,500 X 40, 

, f 60.000 , . , 

long arm 01 evener = •:= 22 2/9 inches, 

^ 2,700 

short arm of evener —40 — 222/9 = 177/9. 

That is, to divide the draft proportionately to the weights of the 

horses, the center hole must be placed 2 2/9 inches from the center 

toward the end upon which the heavy horse is to pull. 







■r.,.,'*( •! •.>7-..li. .!.--.'Si ••• ■■•J'"<'!i ■* 




FIG. 200 — TREAD POWER FOR THREE HORSES 

418. The tread power, — Tlic tread power consists in 
an endless inclined plane or apron carried over rollers 



296 FARM MOTORS 

and around a cylinder at each end of a platform. Power 
is derived from a pulley placed upon a shaft passing 
through one of the cylinders. Fig. 200 illustrates a tread 
power for three horses with the horses at work. Some 
aprons are made in such a way that each slat has a level 
face. This tread is thought to enable the horse to do his 
work with less fatigue because his feet are more nearly in 
their normal attitude. 

Owing to the large number of bearings, the matter of 
lubrication is an important feature in the operation of a 
tread power. Lubrication should be as nearly perfect as 
possible in order that little work will be lost in friction 
and the efficiency of the machine may be increased. The 
bearings should not only have due provision for oiling, 
but they must be so constructed that they will exclude 
all dirt and grit. 

419. The work of a horse in a tread power. — A horse at 
work in a tread power lifts his weight up an incline 
against the force of gravity. The amount of work ac- 
complished depends upon the steepness of the incline and 
the rate the horse travels. If the incline has a rise of 2 
feet in 8, the horse must lift one-fourth of his weight, 
which is transrnitted to the apron and travels at the same 
rate the horse walks. Working a 1,000-pound horse in a 
tread power with a slope of i to 4 is equal to a pull of 
250 pounds by the horse. This is much greater than is 
ordinarily required of a horse, but it is not uncommon to 
set the tread power with this slope. If a horse weighs 
1,600 pounds and walks at the rate of two miles an hour, 
work will be done at the rate of 2.13 H.P. At the same 
speed a 1,000-pound horse will do 1.33 H.P. of work. 

It is often true that a horse will be able to develop much 
more power when worked in a tread power than when 
worked in a sweep power, but he will be overworked. 



ANIMAL MOTORS 



297 



Often horses are overworked in. tread powers without the 
owner intending to do so, or even knowing it. 




420. Sweep powers. — In the sweep power the horses 
travel in a circle, and the power is transmitted from the 
master wheel through suitable gearing to the tumbling 
rod, which transmits the power to the machinery. Sweep 
powers vary in size from those for one horse to those 
for 14 horses. Attention is often called to the fact that a 
considerable part of the draft is lost because the line of 
draft cannot be at right angles to a radius of the circle 
in which the horse walks. For this reason a considerable 
portion of the draft is lost in producing pressure toward 
the center of the power, often adding to the friction. The 
larger the circle in which the horse travels, the more 
nearly the line of draft will be at right angles to a radius 
to the center of the circle. 



1 



CHAPTER XVII 

WINDMILLS 

If the horse is excepted, the windmill was the first kind 
of a motor used to relieve the farmer of physical exertion 
and increase his capacity to do work. With the exception 
of the horse, the windmill is still the most extensively 
used. To prove that the windmill is an important farm 
motor, it is only necessary to cite the fact that many 
thousand are manufactured and sold each year. 

421. Early history — Prof. John Beckmann, in his "History of 
Inventions and Discoveries," has given everything of special interest 
pertaining to the early history of the windmill. As it is conceded 
by all that his work is exhaustive, the following notes of interest 
have been taken from it. Prof. Beckmann believes that the Romans 
had no windmills, although Pomponius Sabinus affirms so. He 
also considers as false the account given by an old Bohemian annal- 
ist, who says that before 718 there were windmills nowhere but in 
Bohemia, and that water mills were then introduced for the first 
time. Windmills were known in Europe before or about the first 
crusade. Mabillon mentions a diploma of 1105 in which a convent 
in France is allowed to erect water wheels and windmills. In the 
twelfth century windmills became more common. 

422. Development of the present-day windmill. — It was about 
the twelfth century that the Hollanders put into use the noted 
Dutch mill. These people used their mills for pumping water from 
the land behind the dikes into the sea. Their mills were constructed 
b> having four sweeps extending from a common axle, and to these 
sweeps were attached cross pieces on which was fastened canvas. 
The first mills were fastened to the tower, so that when the direc- 
tion of the wind changed the owner would have to go out and 
swing the entire tower around ; later they fastened them so that only 
the top of the tower turned, and in some of the better mills they 
were so arranged that a smaller mill was used to swing the wheel 
to the wind. The turning of the tower was no small matter when 
one learns that some of these mills were 140 feet in diameter. 



i 



WINDMILLS 299 

John Burnham is said to be the inventor of the American wind- 
mill. L. H. Wheeler, an Indian missionary, patented the Eclipse 
in 1867. The first steel mill was the Aermotor, invented by T. O. 
Perry in 1883. 

The windmills still most common in Europe are of the Dutch 
type, with their four long arms and canvas sails. These sails 
usually present a warped surface to the wind. The degree of the 
angle of the sails with the plane of rotation, called the angle of 
weather, is about 7° at the outer end and about 18° at the inner. 
The length of the sails is usually about 5/6 the length of the arms, 
the width of the outer end 1/3 the length, and the width of the 
inner end 1/5 the length. It is seen that the total projected area 
of sails is very small compared to the wind area or zone carrying 
the sails. Quite often these wheels are 120 feet in diameter and occa- 
sionally 140 feet. In comparing these mills with the close, compact 
types of American makes a very great contrast is to be drawn. 

Among the men who have done the most experimenting in 
windmill lines are Smeaton, Coulomb, Perry, Griffith, King, and 
Murphy. The names are given in order of date of experimenting. 
The more prominent among these are Smeaton, Perry, and Murphy. 
Probably Perry did more for the windmill than any of the others. 
Prof. E. H. Barbour is noted for his designs and work with home- 
made windmills. 

423. Home-made windmills. — Professor Rarbotir made 
an extensive study of home-made windmills and has had 
a very interesting bulletin published on the subject. He 
has classified them as follows : 

1. Jumbos (Fig. 202). This type consists of a large fan- wheel 

placed in a box so the wind acts on the upper fans only. 

2. Merry-go-rounds. Merry-go-round mills are those in which 

the fans in turning toward the wind are turned edgewise. 

3. Battle-ax mills (Fig. 203). These are mills made with fans of 

such a shape as to suggest a battle-ax. 

4. Holland mills. Somewhat resembling the old Dutch mill. 

5. Mock turbines (Fig. 204). Resembling the shop-made mill. 

6. Reconstructed turbines (Fig. 205). Shop-made mills rebuilt. 

These mills, although of low power, are used exten- 
sively in the West Central States. Most of them are fixed 



300 



FARM MOTORS 



in their position and consequently have full power only 
when the wind is in the direction for which they are set. 
In those States in which these mills are used the wind 




i 



FIG. 202 — HOME-MADE JUMBO 

has the prevailing" directions of south and northwest, and 
for that reason the mills are generally set a trifle to the 
west of north. 

To the casual observer the Jumbo mill (Fig. 202) seems 
a very feasible means of obtaining power, but when one 
considers the massiveness of the whole affair and that 
only one-half of the sails is exposed to the wind at one 
time, also that full power is developed from the wind only 
when the latter is in the proper direction, it will immedi- 
ately be seen that only in cases of dire necessity should 
one waste much time with them. 



I 



WINDMILLS 



301 



The cost of this type of 
mill is very slight. It is 
stated by Professor Bar- 
bour that a gardener near 
Bethany, Nebraska, con- 
structed one which cost 
only $8 for new material, 
and with this he irrigates 
six acres of vegetables. 
If the water-storage ca- 
pacity for such mills is 
enough, they will often 
furnish sufificient water 
for 50 head of stock. One 
farmer has built a gang of 
Jumbo mills into the cone 
of a double corn crib and 
connected them to a small 
sheller. 

The Merry-go-round is 
not nearly as popular as 
the Jumbo, in that it is 
very much harder to build 
and the only advantage it 
has over the latter is that 
a vane may be attached 
in such a manner that the wind wheel is kept in the wind. 

In some parts of Kansas and in several localities of 
Nebraska the Battle-ax mill is used probably more than 
any other type of home-made mill. The stock on large 
ranches is watered by using such mills for pumping pur- 
poses. Where one has not sufficient power, two are used. 
The cheapness of these mills is a consideration ; very sel- 
dom do they cost more than $1.50 outside of what can be 




FIG. 203. — BATTLE-AX WINDMILL 



302 



FARM MOTORS 




1 



FIG. 204 — MOCK TURBINE WINDMILL 

picked up around the farm. The axle can be made of a 
pole smoothed up at the ends for bearings, or a short rod 
can be driven in at each end. The tower can be made of 
three or four poles and the sails of pole cross pieces and 
old boxes. One of these mills 10 feet in diameter will 
pump water for 75 head of cattle. Near Verdon, Nebraska, 
a farmer uses one of these mills in the summer to pump water 
for irrigation, and in the winter for sawing wood. 

424. Turbine windmills. — The term windmills as it is 
commonly used refers only to the American type of 



WINDMILLS 



303 




205 — RECONSTRUCTED 
TURBINE 



shop-made mills. They may 
be classified by the form of 
the wheel and the method of 
governing. 

1. Sectional wheel with centrif- 

ugal governor and independ- 
ent rudder (Fig. 206). 

2. The solid-wheel mill with side- 

vane governor and inde- 
pendent rudder (Fig. 207). 

3. Solid wheel with single rud- 

der. Regulation depends upon 
the fact that the wheel tends 
to go in the direction it 
turns. To aid in governing. 
the rudder is often placed 
outside of the center line of 
wheel shaft (Fig. 208). 

4. Solid or sectional wheel with no rudder back of tower, the pres- 

sure of the wind being depended upon to keep the mill square 
with the direction of the wind. Regulation is accomplished with 
a centrifugal governor (Fig. 209). 

425. The use of the windmill. — The windmill receives 
its power from the kinetic energy of the moving atmos- 
phere. Since this is supplied without cost, the power 
ftirnished by a windmill must be very cheap, the entire 
cost being that of interest on the cost of plant, deprecia- 
tion and maintenance. Where power is wanted in small 
units the windmill is a very desirable motor, provided — 

1. The nature of the work is such as to permit of a suspension 

during a calm, as pumping water and grinding feed. 

2. Some form of power storage may be used. 

426. Wind wheels. — T. O. Perry btiilt a frame on the end 
of a sweep which revolved in an enclosed room in such 
a manner that he could fasten different wheels on it with- 
out making any change in the mechanism. By this lueans 



304 



FARM MOTORS 



he was able to make very exhaustive experiments with- 
out being retarded by atmospheric conditions. He made 




FIG. 206 — SECTIONAL WHEEL WITH CEXTKIi UGAL GOVERNOR AND 
INDEPENDENT RUDDER 

tests with over 60 different forms of wheels, and it was' 
the result of these experiments which brought out the 
steel wheel. From Mr. Perry we learn that in wood wheels 
the best angle of weather is about 30°, and that there 
should be a space of about one-eighth the width of the sail 
between the sails. By angle of weather is meant the 
angle made by the blade and the plane normal or perpen- 
dicular to the direction of the wind. With the tower in 



WINDMILLS 




FIG. 207 — SOLID-WHEEL MILL WITH 
SIDE-VANE GOVERNOR AND INDE- 
PENDENT RUDDER 




FIG. 208 — SOLID WHEEL WITH 
SINGLE RUDDER 



FARM MOTORS 




FIG. 209. — SECTIONAL WHEEL WITH NO RUDDER 



front of the wheel there is a loss of efificiency of about 
14 per cent ; with it behind the wheel there is a loss of only 
about 7 per cent. 

427. Regulation. — Wind wheels of this country are 
made to regulate themselves automatically, and by this 
means of regulation they do not attain a very high rate 
of speed, nearly all of them cutting themselves out when 
the wind has reached a velocity of about 25 miles an hour. 
This is principally due to the fact that our mills are gen- 
erally made for pumping purposes and the pumps do not 
work well when the number of strokes becomes too great. 
It is for this reason that the direct-connected wooden 
wheels do not give as much power as the back-geared 
Steel wheels. As a result of the wind wheels being 



WINDMILLS 307 

thrown partially out of gear when the wind velocity is 
only about 25 miles an hour, many wheels are kept from 
doing- the amount of work which they might be able to 
do. Any mill should stand a velocity of at least 40 miles 
an hour. It is understood that as the wind increases, the 
strain on the working parts decreases. For any given 
velocity of wind the speed of the wheel should not change, 
but the load should be so arranged that the work can be 
done to sviit the wind. 

428. The efficiency of a wind wheel is very greatly af- 
fected by the diameter. This is due to the fact that wind 
is not the same in any two places on the wheel. The 
smaller the wheel, the greater efficiency. Experiments 
were attempted to get the efficiency of a 22-foot wheel, 
but because the wind did not blow at the same velocity 
on any two parts of the wheel they were given up. 

429. Gearing. — At one time the wind wheel seemed to 
be the most vital part of a windmill, but from the results 
of tests and experiments this belief has been obliterated, 
and now the vital part seems to be the gearing. On all 
the old standard makes the gearing seems to be as good 
as ever, even if the mills have run for several years. 
However, on the new designs, and this is mostly the steel 
mill, the gears are wearing out. The fault lies with no 
one but the manufacturers. Competition has been so 
strong that they have reduced the cost of manufacture at 
the expense of wearing parts. For this reason the steel 
wheel, which is far the more powerful, is going out of 
use in some localities, and the old makes of wooden 
wheels are coming back. 

In direct-connected mills the main bearings should be 
long and so placed that they will carry the wheels in 
good shape, and the guide should be heavy and designed 
so that it can be lubricated easily. The bumper spring 



308 FARM MOTORS 

should be well placed, not too close in, so that as the 
wheel is thrown out of the wind there is not too much 
jar. Rubber should never be used for this spring, as the 
continual use and exposure to the weather will cause it 
to harden or flatten so that it is of no use. Generally 
weights are better to hold the wheel in the wind than 
springs. 

In support of back or forward geared mills there is not 
much more to say than has been said about direct con- 
nected. The most vital parts of these mills other than 
named above are the gearings. They must be well set 
and well designed so that when they wear there is not 
a very great chance for them to slip. 

430. Power of windmills. — Probably there is no other 
prime mover which has so many variables depending 
upon it as the windmill, when we undertake to compute 
the power by mathematical means. It is also hard to 
distinguish between the greatest and the least of these 
variables, so the author gives them promiscuously. Vari- 
able velocity of wind ; velocity greater on one side of 
wheel than on the other ; angle of weather of the sails ; 
thickness of sails ; width of sails ; number of sails ; length 
of sails; obstruction of tower either behind or in front 
of wheel ; diameter of wheel ; velocity of sails ; variation 
of load, and location and height of tower. In all the tests 
of windmills which have been carefully and completely 
carried out it is shown that as the wind velocity increases 
or decreases the load should increase or decrease accord- 
ingly ; as the velocity of the wheels increases, the angle 
of weather should decrease, and vice versa. Wide sails 
give more power and a greater efficiency than narrow 
sails. 

A. R. Wolff gives the following table as results for 
wood-wheel mills : 



WINDMILLS 



309 



i$- 




Gallons of 


Water 


raised per J 


linute t( 


an Elevatir 


in of 




25' 


5c.' 


75' 


100' 


150' 


200* 


10' 


60-65 


19-2 


9.6 


6.6 


4-7 






0.12 


12' 


5S-6o 


33-9 


17.9 


11.8 


8.5 


5-7 




0.21 


14' 


50-55 


45-1 


22.6 


15-3 


1 1.2 


7.8 


5-0 


0.28 


16' 


45-50 


64.6 


31.6 


19-5 


16.1 


9.8 


8.0 


0.41 


:8' 


40-45 


97-7 


52.2 


32.5 


24.4 


175 


12.2 


0.61 


20' 


35-40 


124.9 


63.7 


40.8 


31.2 


19-3 


15-9 


0.78 


25' 


30-35 


212.4 


107.0 


71.6 


49-7 


37-3 


26.7 


1-34 



The above table is given where the wind velocity is 
such that the mill makes the number of revolutions a 
minute given; of course, if the velocity increases, the 
R.P.M. will increase likewise and consequently the 
power. 

Smeaton drew from his experiments that the power in- 
creases as the cube of the wind velocity and as the square 
of the diameter of the wheel. Murphy did not check this 
result, but found that the power increases as the squares 
of the velocity and as about 1.25 of the diameter of the 
wheel. This latter conclusion is probably the more re- 
liable, as the instruments which Smeaton used were more 
crude than those of Murphy. The former determined 
the velocity of the wind by taking the time which it would 
take a feather to travel from one point to another as the 
velocity. The latter used a Thompson anemometer. 

431. Tests of mills. — The following tests were made by 
E. C. Murphy to determine what windmills actually did 
in the field, also to see whether mills in practice carried 
cut the rules made by previous experimenters. Perry 
found by his experiments in a closed room that the power 
of a wheel increases as the cube of the velocity, while 
Murphy found that it varied from this. 

It will be noticed from the following table that some 
steel wheels as well as wooden gave much more power 



3IO 




FARM MOTORS 








Name 


Kind 


Diameter 

in 

Feet 


Number 
Sails 


Angle of 
Weather 


Velocity 
of Wind 
in Miles 
per Hour 


Horse 
Power 


Monitor 


Wood 


12 


96 


34° 


20 


.357 


Challenge 


" 


14 


102 


39° 


20 


.420 


Irrigator 


II 


l6 


10 


39° 


20 


.400 


Althouse 


" 


l6 


130 


32° 


20 


.600 


Halliday* 


li 


22.5 


144-100 


25° 


20 


.890 


Aermotor 


Steel 


12 


18 


31° 


20 


1.050 


Ideal 


" 


12 


21 


32° 


20 


.606 


Junior Ideal " 


14 


24 


■29° 


20 


.610 


Perkins 


" 


14 


32 


31° 


20 


.609 


Aermotor 


" 


i6 


18 


30° 


20 


1-530 



*This wheel was made up of two concentric circles of sails, the outer having 
144 sails and the inner 100. 

than others. This is due to workmanship and angle of 
weather. 

It is very clearly shown that the steel wheel is much 
more powerful than the wooden. 

Another important factor noticed from the above table 
is that the i6-foot mill develops only about 50 per cent 
more power than the 12-foot. Taking the shipping 
weights of the 12-foot and 16- foot mills with 50-foot steel 
towers, it is found that they are about 2,000 pounds and 
4,200 pounds, respectivel}^ and since a 16-foot mill is 
much more liable to be damaged by a storm than a 12- 
foot, it is better in a great many cases to put up two 
12-foot mills instead of one 16-foot. 

Mr. Murph}^ miade tests of a Little Jumbo mill 7^ 
feet in diameter with eight sails, each 11X16 feet, and 
found that in a 20-miIe wind he got 0.082 H.P. and in a 
25-mile wind he got o.ioo H.P. He also made tests of a 
Little Giant mill and by computation found that the lat- 
ter mill, having the same dimensions as the former, would 
start in a slov^-er wind and when at full speed would 
develop about 2.5 times as much power. Other advan- 



WINDMILLS 



311 



tages of this mill over the former arc that it is always 
in the wind and is much less liable to be injured by 
storms. 

By a comparison of tables from different manufacturers 
of windmills the following table has been compiled of the 
size of steel windmills required for various lifts and size 
of cylinder. Although it cannot be said that the table is 
accurate, it conforms very closely to the general practice. 





T3 

C 


V 




u 




u 




u 




u 






*^ 


-a 


«ti 


•a 


a 


-a 


w 


-a 


^ 


•a 


vti 






c 




c 








c 








s 


^*j 




J 




»j 


"^ 


hJ 




hJ 


•^ 


►J 


1"^ 





">, V 


V4_, 


">. 


W-. 


>> 


^*-l 


">. 


wi 


>- 


vu. 


«5 


>. 


<^-s 





U 

















y 








*o 


"0^ 


X 





.C 





.s 





s 





.s 








be 




_M 




.£? 




.y 




_M 






V c 




V 




0) 








<u 










'v 








'S 




'C 




■5 


CA 


> 


c75 


X 


w 


X 


w 


a 


in 


K 


cH 


K 


6 


IS 


2" 


100' 


3" 


50' 


4" 


25' 










8 


15 


2 


100' 


^%" 


ICXj' 


3" 


75' 


4" 


35' 






10 


'5 


2" 


300' 


2!^" 


200' 


3" 


I so' 


4" 


70' 






12 


IS 


2 


500' 


^H" 


37S' 


3" 


250' 


4" 


125' 






16 


15 


2^" 


800' 


3" 


500' 


3^" 


400 


4" 


300' 


5" 


200' 


30 


IS 


3^' 


800' 


M" 


500' 


5" 


400' 


7" 


200' 


8" 


135' 



The above table is for mills back-geared about 10 to 3. 
Since wood-wheel mills are generally direct-stroke, they 
require a much larger wheel to accomplish the same work 
as the steel wheels. 

432. Towers. — The Hollanders built their towers in 
the form of a building which either had a revolving roof 
or the tower itself revolved. Within the tower they kept 
mills and grain. Often to-day we see the towers of 
American mills housed in a similar way, with the excep- 
tion that they do not revolve. This is not an economical 
way of providing room, for it requires much more ma- 
terial in the construction than a low building does to 
withstand the excessive wind pressure which it receives. 

Since the top of the tower vibrates greatly, the tower 
needs to be very stifi". Probably a wood tower is stififer 



;i2 



FARM MOTORS 



« Pieces l<i"»5V'-»-lfr'- - 
4Piece!lV'«5X"«nK-'-' 
< Pleees lJi"x 6V"x ISJ-t" 
4PleeesJV»6!i"''201'... 
«Ple<«slls"l5V'''215i 

4PIeeefli;^'"x8"x7' 

£Prece»IV'j'5i.'»3' 



ePIeseil<i"^S)i"ilO'' 



IPleceiU'ieV""!!!^' 



ePleceilV'»l*"«l»9 



4PI<ce9 lit >SJi"lim 



««eoaSV""6V"«S 



(rie<<>ik'>ck">iiiJ 




1 llil'!ll l'.:\ ill 

Sriet 

FIG. 210 — DIMENSIONS FOR 50-FOOT TOWER 



Srie«i5\ <:.■;• iC:i 



WINDMILLS 313 

than steel when new, but owin^ to the variation in wind 
velocity and direction it is only a short time before the 
continual vibration has worked the tower loose at all 
joints and splices. At every joint in the wood tower 
there is a chance for the rain to run in and cause decay. 
Therefore as an offset to the greater rigidity of the wood 
tower one must consider the time for tightening bolts, 
labor for painting, and money for replacing the tower 
every few years. 

Steel towers, as a rule, are not as rigid when new as 
the wood, but they do not present as great a surface to 
the wind as the latter, and since all parts are metal 
there is no chance for a loosening of the joints. The 
steel tower not only saves all of the labor and expense 
required to keep the wooden tower in repair, but it is 
practically indestructible. 

In a cyclone the steel tower will often become twisted 
before the wooden one will be broken. However, the 
latter will generally become so racked and splintered that 
it cannot be repaired. 

433. Anchor posts can be made by setting strong fence 
posts in the ground their full length and nailing some 
strips across them to hold beneath the earth ; but a bet- 
ter method is to insert an angle iron in a concrete base, 
which will support the tower posts. The dimensions of 
the base should be about 18 X 18 inches X 4 feet for 
small mills, and proportionally larger for large mills. 

434. Erecting mills. — Windmills over 60 feet high 
should be assembled piece by piece, but low towers can 
be assembled on the ground, including windmill head, 
sails, and vanes, then raised in a manner similar to Fig. 
211. After the tower has been raised it should be exam- 
ined and all braces and stays given the same tension 
and all nuts tightened. It is also well before the pump 



314 



FARM MOTORS 



rod is put in place to drop a plumb bob from the center 
of the top of the tower to the intersection of cords 
stretched diagonally from the corners of the tower at 




FIG. 211 — RAISING A TOWER 

the base. If the plumb bob does not fall on this inter- 
section, either the braces do not have equal tension or 
the anchor posts are not level. 

435. Economic considerations of windmills. — Many- 
manufacturers claim much more power than the wind- 
mills really develop. This erroneous claim is probably 
due to the fact that early experimenters worked with 
small wheels and figured the power of larger ones from 
the law of cubes, which does not seem to hold true in 
actual practice. It is wrong to say that a good 12- 
foot steel mill will furnish i H.P. in a 20-mile wind and 
that a good 16-foot mill will furnish 1.5 H.P. 

The economic value of a windmill depends upon its 
first cost, its cost of repairs, and its power. The com- 
petition in manufacture at present is so great that often 
the initial cost is kept down at the expense of the other 
two. 

A mill should have as few moving parts as possible. 
The power of a mill is so small that if there is much to 
retard its action there will be very little power left 
for use. 



WINDMILLS 315 

In power mills very often the shafting" is much heavier 
than need be. This is proliably clue to the fact that the 
mill was designed for much more power than it will 
actually develop. Often poor workmanship in manufac- 
ture as well as in erection is the cause of so many mills 
having such small power. 

Trees, buildings, and embankments cause the wind 
velocity to be so variable that for good work it is de- 
sirable that the wind wheel be placed at least 30 feet 
above all obstructions. This would cause the towers to 
be at least 60 or 70 feet high. It is better to put a small 
wheel on a high tower than a large wheel on a low tower. 
An 8-foot wheel on a 70-foot tower will probably do more 
work in a given length of time than a 12-foot wheel on a 
30-foot tower. 

The pumping mill is ordinarily constructed so the 
work is nearly all done on the up stroke. This is hard 
on the mill, as it produces a very jerky motion and ex- 
cessive strain on the working parts. By placing a heavy 
weight on one end of a lever and connecting the plunger 
rod to the other this strain is reduced, since when the 
plunger rod goes down it raises the weight, and when 
it comes up, lifting the pump valve and water, the weight 
goes down and thus assists the mill. 

436. How the wind may be utilized. — In a country 
where there is such an abundant supply of wind as in 
the Central and Western States there is no doubt that a 
windmill is the cheapest and most feasible power for the 
farmer. In certain localities water power is a great 
opponent of the wind, but it has the disadvantage to the 
farmer of being in the wrong location, causing water 
rights to be looked after and dams to be kept in repair, 
while in utilizing the wind all that is required is some 
simple device which will turn wind pressure into work. 



3l6 FARM MOTORS 

The windmill without doubt is the best machine for 
this, but since we cannot depend on the wind at all hours 
of the day, we must devise some scheme whereby we 
can store the work when the wind blows so that we may 
use it when there is no wind. For this means four ways 
come to mind : One is to connect a dynamo to the mill 
and store the electricity in storage batteries. This is not 
a feasible plan at present, since the expense of storage 
batteries and the cost of repairs is too great. Another 
plan is to run an air compressor by means of the wind 
and then use the compressed air for power purposes. 
This again is not satisfactory owing to the cost of keep- 
ing air machines in repair and also of conveying the air. 
Another scheme, and probably the best, is to pump water 
into a tank on a tower, and then let this water which 
has been stored up during the time of wind run down 
through a water motor and from thence to the yards, or, 
if there is more water than is desired for the stock and 
house use, run it into another tank below the tower and 
then pump it back. Another scheme which is similar to 
that named last is to pump the water into a pressure tank 
in the cellar and then let it pass out the same as in the 
tank on the tower. By this latter scheme the ex- 
pense of the tower and the danger of freezing are obvi- 
ated, but a more expensive tank and also an air pump are 
added. 

437. Power mills. — The same discussion, which has 
been given more especially to pump mills, will apply to 
power mills. As a rule, power mills are larger than pump 
mills, and require more skill in keeping the bearings in 
repair. Care should be taken in erecting power mills that 
the shaft is in perfect alignment. A great deal of power 
can be lost by not having the shaft running in a perfect 
Ime. 



^ 



CHAPTER XVIII 

STEAM BOILERS 

438. Principle. — A kettle over the fire filled with water 
is a boiler of small proportions. When fuel is burned be- 
neath the kettle heat is transferred to the metal of the 
kettle and from the metal to the water at the bottom. 
Thus the water in direct contact with the bottom is 
heated, and, since warm water is lighter than cold, the 
warmer water rises to the top and the cold settles in its 
place. In physics this action of the water rising and 
falling- in the kettle, conveying the heat from one part to 
another, is known as convection. In the steam boiler it 
is known as circulation. When sufficient heat has been 
transferred to the water to raise the temperature to 
212° F. it will commence to boil and throw ofif steam. 

The reason why the water had to be heated to 212° 
before the particles of water would be thrown ofif as 
steam was because the atmosphere, having a pressure of 
14.7 pounds to each scpiare inch, pressed upon it so hard 
that the steam could not be thrown ofif until this tem- 
perature had been reached. If the kettle were up on a 
mountain where the atmospheric pressure is not nearly 
as great, steam would have been thrown ofif at a lower 
temperature. 

The same process which takes place in a steam boiler 
also takes place in a kettle, only under less economical 
conditions. A fire is maintained within the furnace of 
the boiler and the heat is transferred to the metal of the 
boiler shell and tubes, thence to the water, w'hich is con- 



3i8 



FARM MOTORS 



verted into steam. The water of a low-pressure boiler, 
i.e., one which carries a pressure of only about 5 pounds 
gauge, is heated to only about 228° when steam is given 
off, while in a high-pressure boiler which carries about 
200 pounds gauge pressure it has to be heated to about 

385°. 

The first boilers were simply large cylindrical shells. 
They did the work required of them, but were very in- 



t 






irir' 


1 




kV/T. 


-^"^"4^ 








FIG. 212 — VERTICAL BOILER 



FIG. 213 VERTICAL BOILER 

WITH SUBMERGED FLUES 



efficient. The next was merely a shell with one tube or 
flue, as it is often called. Multitubular, return tubular, 
internally fired, water-tube, sectional boilers, etc., have 
come in in succession until we have the present-day 
types. 

439. Classification, — Steam boilers may be classified ac- 
cording to their "form and use. Thus we have locomotive, 



STEAM BOILERS 



319 



marine, portable, semi-portable, and stationary boilers, 
according" to use ; and according to form we have hori- 
zontal and vertical boilers. Further, the horizontal class 
may be subdivided into internally and externally fired, 
shell, return-flue, fire-tube and water-tube boilers. For 




FIG. 214 — WATER-TUBE VERTICAL BOILER 



rural use the marine type is very seldom used, and the 
sectional only in rare cases. 

440. Vertical boilers. — Boilers of this type (Fig. 212) 
are not ver}^ economical. They require little floor space 
and are easily installed. In construction they consist of 
a vertical shell, in the lower end of which are the fire box 
and ash pit; extending up from the furnace and reaching 
the top are the fire flues. 



320 



FARM MOTORS 



Since the shell of the fire box is under external pres- 
sure, it must be stayed to avoid collapsing. The blow- 
off cock and frequent hand holes are near the base for 




EXTERNALLY FIRED BOILER 



AA, boiler setting; BB, boiler front; CC, boiler shell; Z?A flues; E, flue door; F, 
handhole; G, flue sheet; //, bracket; /, steam dome; /, safety valve; A', steam 
pipe; L, steam gauge; M, steam gauge syphon; NN, try cocks; O, water 
glass: PS, blow-off pipes; Q, blow-off valve; TT, fire door; [/, fire door lining; 
V, ash door; IV, grates- X, bridge wall; V, ash pit; Z, britchen; A, damper. 



convenient cleaning. A water glass and try cocks are 
near the top. Heating surface in this type of boiler con- 
sists of the fire box and the fire tubes up to the water 



STEAM nOlLERS 321 

line ; as the water does not completely cover the tubes, 
the upper part forms a superheater. 

When the exhaust steam is released into the stack, the 
tubes have a tendency to leak. To avoid this, some 
manufacturers sink the tube sheet below the water level 
(Fig. 213). This form reduces the superheating surface, 
and moreover, since the conical smoke chamber is sub- 
jected to internal pressure, it is likely to be weak. Fig. 
214 is a special type of vertical boiler in which are water 
tubes laid up in courses. The boiler shell can be removed 
from the caisson of tubes so that all parts are accessible 
for cleaning and repairing. 

441. Externally fired boilers (Fig. 215) are generally 
of the C3-lindrical tubular type and can be used for sta- 
tionary work only. These are probably the most simple 
as well as most easily handled and kept in repair of all, 
but they are very bulky, requiring a great amount of floor 
space. The furnace for such boilers is a part of the set- 
ting and is made under the front end. The flames sur- 
round the lower part of the shell and pass to the rear, 
where they enter the tubes and return to the front, thence 
up the stack. 

When setting externally fired boilers, care should be 
taken that one end or the other, generally the rear, be 
free to move forward or backward, since the variation of 
temperature will cause the boiler to contract and expand 
enough to crack the masonry upon which it rests. 

442. Internally fired boilers. — This class comprises 
several types, the locomotive type (Fig. 216), the return- 
flue type (Fig. 217), and the Lancashire. The first two 
of these types are the most used for traction or portable 
work, while the latter is adapted only to stationary use. 

443. Locomotive type. — The locomotive fire-tube type 
was probably the first of the modern boilers to come into 



322 



FARM MOTORS 



1 



STEAM BOILERS 



323 



general use. With only a few changes, it is the same 
now. By referring to hig. 218, it will be noticed that 
the fire box is practically built into the rear end of the 
boiler barrel. Extending from the rear tube sheet and 
through the entire length of boiler barrel arc the fire 
tubes, which are generally about two inches in diameter. 
Surrounding the lire box and fire tubes is the water. 
This gives abundance of heating surface, also freedom of 
circulation. As the sides of the fire box are nearly flat, 
they will easily collapse under the pressure of the steam 



flt^aj- -^ aJTSiSa; 




FIG. 217 — RETURN-FLUE TYPE OF INTERNALLY FIRED BOILER 



unless supported by stay bolts at intervals of every few 
inches. 

The steam dome can be located anywhere, but it is 
generally placed about midway between front and rear 
ends. A pipe takes the steam from the top of the dome, 
carries it down through the steam space, where it is dried, 
then out wherever convenient. 

Generally the blow-off is at the bottom and in front 
of the lire box. The water glass is placed about on a 



324 FARM MOTORS 

level with the crown sheet, since this is the place where 
the water must not get low. 

444. Round-bottom types. — The principal variation 
from the original type of this class of boilers is in the de- 
sign of the rear or furnace end. The common practice is 
to have the water pass completely around the fire box, 
including the under side. Such boilers are generally 
known as the round- or enclosed-bottom type (Fig. 218). 
As a rule, the draft can enter at front or rear of the fire 
box. This method of draft frequently aids the fireman 
in firing up, for when there is but one ash door the direc- 
tion of the wind may be such as to blow away from the 
door, retarding the draft. 

445. The open-bottom type (Fig. 219) is so constructed 
that ash pan and grates can be removed and a complete 
new fire-box lining put in. The draft can enter at either 
end of the fire box. There is not as free circulation in 
this type as in the round-bottom boilers, providing the 
latter are kept clean. 

When a portable boiler of the locomotive type is setting 
with the front end low, unless there is an abundance of 
water, the crown sheet will be exposed and, if not at- 
tended to at once, will become overheated and collapse. 
To aid in avoiding this, some manufacturers are making 
the rear end of the crown sheet (Fig. 220) lower than 
the front. This mode of construction reduces the size of 
the rear end of the fire box to a certain degree, but it is 
done where the space is not essential. Fig. 220 also 
shows a device which further aids in protecting the crown 
sheet by displacing" the water in the front end of the 
boiler. 

446. Return-flue boilers of the internally fired type 
have one main flue, which carries the gases from the 
fire box through the boiler to the front end. Here they 



STEAM BOILERS 



325 



»> 'X !S te 



^ c E ■' ^ 




« t: "^ s 




i <u <' ^ ± 




^ "-"r...^ 


f?i 


§^:.^-§ 




e sheets ; 
am dome 
low-off p 
ower ; F 
or; Cr, i 


Q 
t— 1 


^^^.^^ 


>< 


^ v; "^ ^ -S 
^ a •' ^ 

•- •- C te , 


< 
OS 




326 



FARM MOTORS 



are divided and enter several smaller flues, then return 
to the rear end and pass up the stack. This, without 
doubt, is a very economical type. 

By referring- to Fig. 221, which is an end view of a 
return-flue boiler, it will be noticed that the smaller tubes 
are above the main flue. By this arrangement the smaller 
and cooler parts will become exposed first, thus giving 




FIG. 219 OPEN-BOTTOM FIRE-BOX BOILER 

the engineer a chance to save the boiler from collapse or 
explosion. 

447. Wood and cob burners. — Most boilers upon the 
market have interchangeable grates so that by placing a 
grate with smaller openings in place of the coarser one 
for coal, wood and cobs may be burned. 

Since the most economical firing can be accomplished 
by refraining from poking the fire on top, a great many 
factories are making a rocker grate (Fig. 222), which is 




STEAM BOILERS 



ZV 




328 



FARM MOTORS 



worked by a lever in 
such a manner that all 
fine ashes will drop 
through. 

448. Straw burners. — 
For burning straw there 
must be special arrange- 
ments within the fire 
box. The fuel is light 
and generally chaffy, 
and as a result flashes 
up very quickly, and un- 
less prevented will be 
carried by the draft 
some distance through 
the tubes before it is all 
aflame. Not only this, 
but straw must be 
burned rapidly in order 
to produce heat enough to make steam as fast as needed'. 
To handle straw under these conditions, the return-flue 
boilers are generally constructed similar to the type 
shown in Fig. 223 : a is an extended fire box with a drop- 
hinge door ; b is the upper grate ; and c is the lower grate, 
where as much of the straw as is not burned in the upper 
grate, or as it falls from it, is consumed ; d d are deflectors 
which hold the flames next to the upper side of the flue. 




-END VIEW OF RETURN-FLUE 
BOILER 




FIG. 222. — ROCKER GR.\TES 



STEAM BOILERS 



329 




FIG. 223. — STRAW BURNER RETURN-FLUE BOILER 

449. Direct-flue boilers, (Fig. 224), can be more easily 
changed from coal burners to straw burners. This is 
generally done by adding a feeding tube with an enclosed 
drop-hinge door, by removing the grates and inserting a 
dead plate with short grates in front of it, and by placing 
a deflecting arch composed of firebrick in the fire box. 




FIG. 224. — STRAW BURNER DIRECT-FLUE BOILER 



330 



FARM MOTORS 



By means of the shorter grates the draft opening is re- 
duced, and by the aid of the deflector a combustion 
chamber is produced where all of the light particles are 
consumed and the gases are heated to an incandescent 
state before entering the tubes. The direction of draft 
in this type is nearly always toward the straw, thus caus- 
ing the heat as it passes the unburned straw to prepare it 
for better combustion. 

BOILER ACCESSORIES 

450. Supply tank. — Boilers used for 
traction purposes require a small supply 

t'tank to which the boiler pump or the in- 
_. A. jector is connected. This tank is gener- 

ally placed in some position where it is 
convenient, yet out of the way. 

451, Siphon or ejector — When the 
supply tank is placed so high that it can- 
not be filled from a stock tank or other 
similar source, a siphon (Fig. 225) is 
generally used. The construction of 
this is such that a jet of steam is passed 
into a water pipe leading from the tank 
or cistern to the supply tank. As the 
steam comes in contact with the water 
it is condensed ; this produces a vacuum 
such that the water rushes in to fill, and 

the inertia due to the velocity of the steam sends it along 
into the supply tank. 

Care must be taken in regard to the amount of steam 
used, since if too much steam be used the water will be- 
come so warm that the feed pump or injector will not 
work. 

452. Feed pumps. — There are three types of pumps 
now in use : the crosshead pump, the independent direct- 




FIG. 225 — SYPHON 
FOR FILLING SUP- 
PLY TANK 



STEAM BOILERS 



331 




FIG. 226— CROSSHEAD PUMP 




FIG. 22"] — INDEPENDENT DIRECT-ACTING PUMP 



332 



FARM MOTORS 




FIG. 228- 



-INDEPENDENT PLUNGER 
PUMP 



acting (Marsh) pump, and 
the independent phinger 
pump (Figs. 226, 22^, and 
228). The crosshead type 
is the simplest and most 
economical, but can be run 

C-^*^)f^\ //W4l\w\^ °"^^ when the engine is 
'K/^JmA'l/nX^vX' running. The Marsh inde- 
pendent pump is simple and 
economical, but the action 
of its steam valve is deli- 
cate and' should be molested 
only by an expert. The in- 
dependent plunger pump is 
very satisfactory in that it 
can be run at any time and by any one. The initial cost 
of this is more than that 
of other types. 

453. The injector i s 
probably the most gen- 
erally used means o f 
feeding boilers. It was 
invented in 1858 by M. 
Giffard, and large num- 
bers of the same types 
are still made. The ac- 
tion of the injector will 
be understood by refer- (J^^e 
ring to the sketch 
(Fig. 229). Steam is 
taken from the boiler 
and passes through the 
nozzle A to the injector; 

,, 1. r i. • FIG. 229 — PRINCIPLE OF THE 

the amount 01 steam is injector 




STEAM BOILERS 



333 



regulated by the valve B. In the tube C the steam is 
combined with the slowl}^ moving" water, which is drawn 
up from the tank D. The swiftly flowing steam puts 
sufficient momentum into the water to carry it into the 
boiler. The delivery tube E has a break in it at F where 
the surplus steam or water can overflow. 

An injector should 1)e chosen with reference to the 
special work required of it. Some will lift water, others 
will not. Some will start under low-pressure steam and 



ST£AM 




FIG. 230 — COMMERCIAL INJECTOR 



refuse" to act under high, while with others the reverse is 
true. There are also injectors which will operate with 
exhaust steam. Such an injector is not essential, since 
the efficiency of one of high pressure is practically 100 
per cent. 

Locomotives are equipped with self-starting injectors. 

Every traction engine should be equipped with two 
systems of boiler feeds. Some have two injectors, while 



334 FARM MOTORS 

some have two pumps, but the most common method is 
a pump and injector. 

454. Feed-water heaters. — The sudden change in tem- 
perature of boilers puts them under a great deal of strain. 
One of the principal reasons for this change in tempera- 
ture is the admitting of cold feed water. This water may- 
be easily heated by passing the exhaust steam through 
it. There are two methods of such heating : one is to 
allow the exhaust steam to mingle with the water, thus 
bemg condensed and carried back to the boiler, and the 
other is to pass the feed water through pipes surrounded 
by steam. By the former method the steam is returned 



FIG. 231 — FEED-WATER HEATER 

to the boiler, and unless a filter is used all the cylinder 
oil is carried into the boiler, to which it is detrimental. 
In the latter case the steam does not return to the boiler, 
but is sent up the stack, thus producing a forced draft. 
Fig. 231 shows a heater of this type. 

As pumps and injectors will not operate with hot water, 
and since the water from a heater is nearly as hot as the 
exhaust steam, the heater must be located between pump 
and boiler. 

455. Water columns. — The purpose of the water col- 
umn is to support the gauge glass and try cocks; it is 



STEAM BOILERS 



335 



used only in stationary boilers. The water column 
should be located so that the center of the column will 
come to the point where the level of the water should be 
above the tubes, or crown sheet. The column is gen- 
erally of a casting- about 3J^ inches in diameter and 15 
inches long. Into this casting are secured the try cocks 
and water glass. Some builders connect the steam gauge 
to the upper end. 

By referring to Fig. 232 
it will be noticed that the 
lower end of the glass, the 
lower try cock, and the 
crown sheet are on a level 
with each other, hence 
when the water is out of 
sight in the glass and also 
will not flow from the try 
cock the crown sheet is ex- 
posed. The water should 
be kept about in the middle 
of the glass, and likewise 
even with the center try 
cock. It should not be 
above the upper try cock, 
or there will be trouble 
from wet steam. 

456. Steam gauge. — The mechanism of a steam gauge 
(Fig. 233) usually consists of a thin tube bent in a circle. 
One end of the tube is connected to the boiler, and the 
other, by means of a link, to a small pinion which works 
a needle indicator. Air is kept in the tube by means of the 
siphon, and a cylmdcr of water lies between the air and 
the boiler. When there is zero pressure in the boiler the 
needle should set at o. As pressure begins to rise in the 




FIG. 232 — WATER COLUMN, 

GAUGE GLASS, TRY COCKS 

AND STEAM GAUGE 



336 



FARM MOTORS 




FIG. 233 — STEAM GAUGE 



boiler the air will tend, 
to straighten the tube, 
and hence the tube acts 
upon the needle. If it 
is found by comparison 
with another gauge 
that the needle does not 
indicate the actual 
steam pressure it can 
be regulated by sliding 
the link up or down in 
the slot at the end of 
the pinion, thus chang- 
ing the throw o f t h e 
needle. 

457. Fusible plug. — 
As a safeguard against low water a fusible plug is put in 
the boiler. In fire-box boilers it is placed in the crown 
sheet directly over the fire, and in return-flue boilers 
it is placed in the back end just above the upper row of 
flues. The plug is generally made of brass about one inch 
in diameter and with a tapered hole bored through its 
center (Fig. 254). The tapered hole is filled with some 
metal, generally Banca tin, which will fuse at a low tem- 
perature, so that when the water has become so low that 
the metal melts and runs out the steam will flow through 
the opening and put out the fire. 

458. Safety or pop valve. — It is essential that in every 
boiler there be a safety valve so that 
the steam may be released before too 
high pressure has been reached. There 
are two distinct types of these valves, 
the ball and lever valve and the spring 

1 'nt- i /T7- ^ -\ • FIG. 234 — FUSIBLE 

pop valve. Ihe former (rig. 235) is vivQ 




STEAM BOILERS 



337 




FIG. 235 — BALL AND LEVER SAFETY VALVE 

the least expensive, also the less reliable. It is 
generally used upon stationary boilers. To increase the 
pressure in the boiler before it blows off, the ball must 
be moved farther out on the lever, and inversely to de- 
crease the pressure. The ball should be set at the proper 
point to blow off at the desired pressure, and then the 
lever marked so that the point can be seen distinctly. 

Spring safety valves are generally used on traction en- 
gines and the better class of boilers. They are more re- 
liable and also act 
much more quickly. If 
properly constructed 
they will allow the 
pressure to fall about 
5 pounds before clos- 
ing, while the ball and 
lever type only falls to 
a trifle less than the 
blow-off pressure. By 
referring to Fig. 236 fig. 236-pop valve 




338 FARM MOTORS 

it will be noticed that there is a groove B in the 
valve such that when the valve starts to open, the 
steam rushes into it, thus increasing" the area of the valve 
and causing it to open more quickly and remain open 
longer. To increase the pressure at blow-off, screw down 
on the pin G ; to lower the pressure, screw up on the pin 
G. Care must be taken not to tighten the spring down 
too far, or it will not allow the valve to lift off its seat. 

459. Blower and exhaust nozzle. — In all traction en- 
gines there nuist be some mctliod of increasing the draft. 
The most simple method and the one universally used is 
the blower when the engine is not running, and the ex- 
haust when it is. 

The blower (Fig. 218) consists of a small pipe with a 

valve which leads from 
the boiler to the stack. 
After the pressure has 
reached 5 or 10 pounds 
the valve in this pipe is 

FIG. 237 — EXHAUST NOZZLE OpCUCd aud a JCt OI 

s t e a m is allowed to 
blow into the stack. The momentum of the steam pro- 
duces a vacuum and the air rushing through the grates 
and coal to fill this space increases the rate of combus- 
tion. When the engine is running the exhaust steam 
from the heater takes the place of the blower and the lat- 
ter is closed. Fig. 237 shows an exhaust nozzle which can 
be made to give a sharp or sluggish exhaust, as desired. 

460. Blow-off pipe. — Wherever there is a chance for 
sediment of any kind to collect in a boiler there should 
be some means of cleaning it. This is almost always 
accomplished by means of a blow-off pipe and valve. In 
vertical boilers this is located at the lower end of the 
water leg. In return-flue boilers this is either at the front 




STEAM BOILERS 339 

or the rear end. and in fire-box l)oilers it is l)eneath the 
fire box or in the water lej^s. 

461. Spark arrester. — Where some method of forced 
draft is used in a boiler there is danger of sparks being 
carried out and causing fires. Traction engines guard 
against this by means of a spark arrester. This may con- 
sist of a screen which catches the sparks and allows them 
to fall into the stack, or it may be accomplished by turn- 
ing the smoke around a sharp corner and, as the sparks 
are heavier than the smoke, they will be thrown out and 
are caught in a receptacle for that purpose. The smoke 
box or front end of the boiler may be long for the 
purpose. 

BOILER CAPACITY 

462. The capacity of a boiler depends upon the amount 
of heat generated and the proportion of that heat trans- 
ferred to the water. The amount of heat generated de- 
pends upon the quantity of coal, the draft, and area of 
grate surface. The amount of heat transferred from the 
coal to the water depends upon the amount and position 
of the heating surface. 

There is no entirely satisfactory method of stating the 
capacity of a boiler or its economy, but they are com- 
monly stated as boiler horse power and the pounds of 
steam evaporated per pound of coal. This method of 
rating is on the assumption that the steam is all dry 
saturated steam and that there is no priming or super- 
heating. 

When water is carried along with steam from the boiler 
it is called priming. Very seldom is a boiler designed 
which does not prime at least 2 per cent, but if it primes 
over 3 per cent it is improperly designed. When steam 
passes over a hot surface after leaving the boiler it will 
absorb additional heat and become superheated. That 



340 ^ FARM MOTORS 

part of the tubes which is above the water line in a 
vertical boiler is superheating surface. In other styles 
of boilers the steam in order to be superheated generally 
passes through a coil of pipe within the fire box or a 
furnace made purposely for it. 

463. Steam space. — The surface for the disengagement 
of steam and the steam space should be of sufficient size 
so that there is no tendency for the water to pass off 
with the steam. It has been found by experiment that if 
the steam space has capacity to supply the engine with 
steam for 20 seconds, there will be no trouble with prim- 
ing. To determine whether the boiler has sufficient steam 
space, find the volumes of the engine cylinder, less the 
volume of the piston, and multiply this by twice the 
number of revolutions that the engine makes in 20 sec- 
onds. This should be about equal to the volume of the 
steam space, which is the space above the water in the 
boiler, plus that in the dome. 

464. Boiler horse power. — There are two common 
methods of approximately determining the horse power of 
a boiler, and a third one which is sometimes resOrted to. 
One of the common methods is by test, and the other is by 
heating surface, while the third method is by grate sur- 
face. 

465. Horse power by test. — A committee of the Ameri- 
can Society of Mechanical Engineers has recommended 
that one horse power be equivalent to evaporating 30 
pounds of water at 100 "^ F. under a pressure of 70 pounds 
gauge. This is equivalent to 33,320 B.T.U. an hour. 

Example. — If a 15 H.P. boiler evaporate 15 X 30 or 450 pounds of 
water in one hour with feed water at 100° and under a gauge 
pressure of 70 pounds, it would be doing its rated horse power. To 
make the test, fill the boiler to its proper level and tie a string 
around the glass at this point, then keep the water in the boiler at 
this level. If the feed water is below 100°, turn steam into it until 



STEAM nOILKRS 34I 

the proper temperature has Uecn reached. Use just steam enough 
to keep the pressure at 70 pounds. Vv cigh the feed water supply be- 
fore starting, then weigh again at the close of the run. If the run 
has been of one hour's duration, divide the number of pounds of feed 
water by 30, and this will give the horse power developed. If the 
run has been only one-half hour, multiply by 2, then divide by 30. 

466. Power by heating surface. — The heating surface 
of a boiler consists oi the entire area of those parts of the 
surface which have fire on one side and water on the other. 
In the horizontal tubular boiler it is all of the shell which 
comes beneath the boiler arch, also the inside area of all 
the tubes and about two-thirds the area of the tube sheets 
less the area of the titles. In the vertical boilers it is the 
total inside area of the fire box and as much of the tubes 
as is below the water line. 

In the fire-box boilers it is the inside area of the water 
legs, the crown sheet, and the flues and a portion of the 
tube sheets. 

The common rating of boiler horse power 1)y heating 
surface is 14 square feet for each horse power. This 
varies with the boiler, some styles requiring a little less 
and some a little more. 

As an example, let it be desired to find the heating 
surface of a horizontal tubular boiler, h'ind the total 
area of the outside of shell and take about one-half of this. 
The brickwork covers about one-half of the shell, hence, 
one-half of it is all the heating surface there is in this 
part. Now meastire and compute the inside area of one 
of the flues and multiply this by the number of flues. 
Add this surface to the heating surface of the shell and 
divide the sum by 14. This gives the horse power of the 
boiler. 

467. Power by grate surface. — This method is not very 
often resorted to. In any case it can be only a rough 



342 FARM MOTORS 

estimate. It is generally conceded that from one-third to 
one-half square feet of grate surface is equivalent to one 
horse power. 

STRENGTH OF BOILERS 

468. Materials used. — The materials used in the con- 
struction of boilers are mild steel, wrought iron, cast iron, 
copper, and brass. 

In order that a boiler have proper strength for the 
severe work required of it, sample pieces of all the ma- 
terials used in its construction are selected and given 
a test, and those which fail to have the proper require- 
ments are discarded. They are tested in tension, com- 
pression, and shear. (See Chap. Ill, Part I.) 

Steel. — All present-day boilers are made up of mild-steel 
plates. This steel is a tough, ductile, ingot metal, with 
about one-quarter of i per cent of carbon. It should have 
a tensile strength of about 55,000-60,000 pounds. Some- 
times a better grade of steel plate is used for the lire box 
and tube sheets of the boiler than for the shell. This is 
because flanging for riveting and the variations of tem- 
perature due to the fire require a better grade of steel. 

Blue heat. — All forms of mild steel are very brittle when 
at a temperature corresponding to a blue heat. Plates 
that will bend double when cold or at a red heat will 
crack if bent at a blue heat. 

WroiigJit-iron parts. — All welded rods and stays should 
be of wrought iron. About 35 per cent of the strength of 
the bar is lost because of the weld. Boiler plates made 
of wrought iron are considered more satisfactory than of 
steel, but are used only in exceptional cases because of 
the greater cost. VVrought-iron plates should have a 
tensile strength of 45,000, and bolts should have 48,000. 

Rk'ets. — Boiler rivets are either of wrought iron or mild 
steel. The rods from which rivets are made should have a 



STKAM liOILKRS 343 

tensile strength of 55,000 j^ounds for steel and 48,000 for 
iron. When cold they should l)cnd around a rod of their 
own diameter, and when warm bend double without a 
fracture. The shearing strength is about two-thirds of 
the tensile strength. 

Cast iron is used in boilers for those parts where there 
are no sudden changes of temperature and where there is 
no great tens,ile strength required. Couplings, elbows, 
etc., are better of cast iron, for when they become set and 
can be removed in no other way they can be l)roken. 

469. Stay bolts and stay rods. — In some parts of the 
boilers the flues act as stays. In horizontal tubular 
boilers the flues hold the ends of the shell together. In 
the fire box and in vertical boilers they act in the same 
way between the flue sheets. Wherever there are flat 
surfaces and no other means of supporting them, special 
stay bolts or braces must be put in. In nearly all boilers 
above the flues stay rods are used to support the ends. 
Around the fire box stay bolts are put in. These bolts 
are threaded full length, then screwed through the outer 
shell and through the water leg and into the fire-box 
lining, then they are riveted on both ends. Their size and 
distance apart depends upon the pressure to be carried. 

Example.— If tlie stay bolts are 4 inches apart and the maximum 
pressure to be carried is 120 pounds they should be large enough 

to hold 

4 X 4 X 120 = 1,920 

pounds. If we use a factor of safety of 10 — that is, make it ten times 
as strong as necessary to avoid accidents — it will have to be large 
enough at the base of the thread to hold 

1,920 X 10 = 19,200 
pounds. If a wrought-iron bolt is used it would have to have 

19,200 -^ 48,000 = 0.40 
square inches area at the base of threads. A %-inch bolt has about 
this area. 



344 FARM MOTORS 

470. Strength of boiler shell. — To determine the ten- 
sion upon one side of a boiler shell, let 

p = pressure in pounds per square inch, 
/ ^ thickness in inches, 
r =: radius, 
J = stress in pounds per square inch; 



then 






Example. — A boiler has a diameter of 3 feet, a thickness of 
7/16 inch and the steam pressure is 125 pounds. How many pounds 
per square inch pull is there on each side? 

pr 125 X 3 X12 7 

pounds. This is about one-tenth the tension which boiler plate 
will stand, hence we have a factor of safety of 10, which is greater 
than need be. 

471. Riveted joints. — If a boiler shell could be made 
of one continuous piece, the above tension would be the 
safe working- load, but since the steel has to be riveted 
and a riveted joint is not as strong as the original plate, 
we must consider the ratio of this strength of the whole 
plate. This ratio is commonly called the efficiency of a 
riveted joint. 

There are three general ways that a riveted joint may 
give way : 

1. By tearing the plate between the rivets. 

2. By shearing the rivets. 

3. By crushing the rivets or plate at the point of contact. 

Since only single-riveted and double-riveted lap joints 
are used in small boilers, these styles will be considered 
only. 

472. Single-riveted lap joint. — in the joint shown by Fig. 
238, let t be the thickness of plate, d the diameter of rivet, p the 
distance between rivets, commonly called pitch, the tensile strength 



STEAM nOILERS 



345 



of the plate 5*(=: 45.000, and resistance to crushing 5,.. =: 90,000. 
Assume t = 7/16 inch, d = 1 inch, and p = 2yi inches. 

A strip of the joint equal in width to the pitch is sufficient to be 
considered. 

1. Tearing between the two rivets. — In this case there is a strip 
to be torn in two, equal in width to the distance between the rivets 
less the diameter of the rivet, i.e., p — d, and it has a thickness 
equal to t, i.e., the strip has a cross-section of an area (p — d)t; this 
cross-section in square inches times the tensile strength will give 
the pull required to fracture the joint: 

(p — d)tSt= (2i/i — i) X 7/16 X 55,000 = 36,095. 

2. Shearing one rivet. — Since there is only one rivet in each 
2j/2-inch strip, we have to consider the shearing of it only. 





FIG. 238 — SINGLE-RIVETED 
LAP JOINT 



239 — DOUBLE-RIVETED 
LAP JOINT 



The area to be sheared is the area of a cross-section of the rivet, or 

3.1416 rtfi' 
4 

The pull which it will take to shear this rivet is the area times the 
shearing strength : 

3.1416^'' ^ 3.1416 

^-^ X Ss= -" X 45.000 = 35.343- 



3. Crushing. — In this case it is common to consider that the area 
to be crushed is the diameter of the rivet times the thickness, hence 
dtSc= I X 7/16 X 90.000 = 39,375. 
The number of pounds it will take to fracture a strip of plate 
2^2 inches wide and 7/16 inch thick by tension is 
2K- X 7/ 16 X 55.000 = 60,155. 



346 FARM MOTORS 

Hence the ratio of the strength of the joint to the strength of the 
plate is 

35.350-^60,155 = 088; 

hence 

0.588 X 100 = 58.8 per cent = the efficiency. 

Now, if the original shell on page 344 is referred to, it will be 
seen that instead of having a boiler with a factor of safety of 10 it 
will have only 58.8 per cent of this factor, or approximately 6, which 
is about the usual factor. 

473. Double-riveted lap joint (Fig. 239). 

1. Tearing between two rivets. — The resistance to tearing is 

(p — d)tSt = (214 — I ) X 7/16 X 55-000 = 36,095. 

2. Shearing two rivets. — Instead of shearing one rivet as in the 
single-riveted lap joint, two are sheared. Hence 

4 4 

is equal to 70,686. 

3. Crushing two rivets. — Here again two rivets are considered 

instead of one, hence 

2dtSc = 78,750. 

The efficiency of this joint would then be 

100 X 36,095 -i- 60,155 ^60 per cent. 

The same dimensions have been used in this joint as in the pre- 
vious one for simplicity and comparison. By using a smaller rivet 
this joint can be made much more efficient. 

474. Test of boilers for strength. — There are two dis- 
tinct methods of testing boilers for strength. The one 
which is generally conceded to be best is the hydravilic 
test ; and the other, which is about as safe and sure, and 
in some cases more so, is the hammer test. 

Hydraulic test. — This test consists in filling the boiler full 
of cold water and then putting pressure upon it to the 
desired point. This pressure is generally about one and 
one-half times the working pressure. Since some boilers 
are designed with a factor of safety of only four or five, 
if twice the working pressure be put on it there will be 
danger of rupture to the boiler. With new boilers this 



STEAM BOILERS 347 

test shows all leaks around stays, tubes, joints, etc.; 
while in old boilers, if they are carefully watched as the 
pressure increases, it will disclose weakness by bulging 
in some places and distortion of joints in others. 

Hammer test. — The inspector who conducts this test 
should go over the boiler before it has been cleaned inside 
and out and carefully note all places where there is 
corrosion or incrustation. At the same time he should 
carefully strike all suspicious places a sharp blow with 
the hammer to detect weaknesses. A good plate will 
give a clean ring at every blow of the hammer, while a 
weak one has a duller sound. 

Although a boiler may be carefully inspected and 
tested by both methods, it does not insure it against 
failures. The greatest strain upon a boiler is due to un- 
equal expansion, and neither of these methods takes this 
into account. 

Some authorities recommend hot water to be used in 
the test, but there seems to be no advantage in this, since 
it is the unequal expansion of boilers and not the rise in 
temperature which causes the failure of certain parts and 
consequently so much destruction. 

FUELS 

475. The fuels most commonly used for making steam 
are coal, coke, wood, ])eat, gas, oil, boggasse, and straw. 
Those used for traction engines and threshing purposes 
are coal, wood, straw, and occasionally cobs. 

Anthracite coal. — Anthracite coal, commonly known as 
hard coal, consists almost entirely of carbon. It is 
hard, lustrous, and compact, burns with very little flame, 
and gives an intense heat. It has the disadvantage when 
being fired of breaking into small pieces and falling 
through the grates. 



348 FARM MOTORS 

Semi-anthracite coal. — This variety has properties that 
make it to be considered a medium between anthracite 
and soft coal. It burns very freely with a short flame. 

Bituminous or soft coals. — These burn freely and with all 
gradations of character. Their properties are so varied 
that they will not permit of classification. Some burn 
with very little smoke and no coking. This class is gen- 
erally used m traction engines. Others which coke very 
freely are good for gas making. 

Wood is used only where it is more plentiful than coal. It 
requires a finer meshed grate than coal and more atten- 
tion in feeding. 

Oil. — In localities where oil is plentiful or where it is 
cheaper to freight oil than coal, furnaces are fitted for it 
as a fuel. It has been found that oil burns the best when 
atomized and mixed with steam. For this purpose a 
nozzle is constructed so that both steam and oil can flow 
from it, the steam forming an oily vapor of the oil, which 
when ignited burns with a very intense heat. 

Straw. — In localities where straw is practically worthless 
and coal and wood are scarce, straw is used as a fuel. It 
must be handled with care, since too much in the fire box 
at once is as harmful as not enough. 

476. Value of fuels. — Anthracite and semi-anthracite 
coals have about the same heating value. Bituminous 
has a trifle lower value. A cord of hard wood has the 
same amount of heat in it as a ton of anthracite coal, 
while a cord of soft wood has only about half that value. 

COMBUSTION 

477. The term combustion as ordinarily used means the 
combining of a substance in the shape of fuel with oxygen 
of the air rapidly enough to generate heat. . In all fuels 
there are hydrogen and carbon, and some mineral matter. 



STEAM BOILERS 349 

The carbon and hydrogen unite readily with the oxygen 
of the air, generating heat and Hght, but the mineral 
matter remains and forms the ash. 

When the carbon of the coal mixes with the oxygen 
of the air and the mixture is at or above the igniting 
temperature, combustion takes place and either carbon 
monoxide (CO) or carbon dioxide (COo) is formed, de- 
pending upon the amount of air supplied. If the air is 
insuflficient in quantity to furnish enough oxygen to form 
COo, CO will be formed. If the mixture is not hot 
enough to form complete ignition a great deal of free 
carbon in the form of smoke is thrown ofif and is a loss. 

478. Heat of combustion. — Carbon will not unite with 
oxygen when in the free state until a certain temperature 
is reached. This temperature is known as the igniting 
temperature. Wlien the igniting temperature has once 
been reached and the carbon of the fuel combines with 
the oxygen of the air, they in turn throw ofif heat. By 
experiment it has been found that one pound of carbon 
burned to carbon monoxide (CO) produces 4,400 
B.T.U., and if burned to carbon dioxide (COo) 14,650 
B.T.U. are produced. One pound of hydrogen united 
with sufficient oxygen produces 62,100 B.T.U. 

479. Air for combustion.* — By weight, 12 pounds of 
carbon unite with 16 pounds of oxygen ; hence i pound of 
carbon forms 

28 ^ 12 = 2I/3 
pounds CO, or if it be burned to COo it will require 
twice as much oxygen for each pound of carbon ; hence 

12+ (2 X 16) ^12 = 35^ 
pounds COo for each pound of carbon. 

Since in the 3 2/3 pounds CO2 there is one pound of 

*A good discussion of this will be found in Peabody and Miller's 
"Steam Boilers." 



350 FARM MOTORS 

carbon, there must be 2 2/2^ pounds of oxygen ; hence 

one pound of carbon requires 2 2/3 pounds of oxygen. 

As we must have 4 1/2 pounds of air to get one pound of 

oxygen to burn one pound of carbon to CO,, it requires 

pounds of air. ,. ^ ,, 

^ 23/3 X aVz — 12 

As there are impurities in all fuels, so that a pound 
of fuel is not necessarily a pound of pure carbon, there 
are variations which have to be considered. 

480. Volume of air for combustion. — As before stated, 
an insufficient amount of air burns the carbon only to 
CO, while a sufficient amount burns it to CO2. Instead 
of having the exact 12 pounds of air for each pound of 
carbon, as previously computed, it requires an excess for 
complete combustion. This excess varies from one-half 
the quantity required for combustion to an equal quan- 
tity. Roughly, for each pound of carbon there should be 
from 18 to 24 pounds of air. 

By experiment it has been found that it requires 10 

pounds of air for each pound of certain coals, and since 

13 cubic feet of air at the temperature it generally enters 

the fire box weighs i pound, for each pound of coal it 

requires 

10 X 13= 130 

cubic feet of air without excess. If the excess is 50 per 
cent, it requires about 200 cubic feet. 

Loss from improper amount of air. — If one pound of car- 
bon be burned to CO, there will be 4,400 B.T.U. liberated. 
If it be burned to CO^, there will be 14,650 B.T.U. set 
free. Hence there will be a loss of 

14,650 — 4,400 = 10,250 B. T. U. 

100 X 10,250 -^ 14,650 = 70 per cent. 
This would be a case too rare to be considered and is 
used only for simplicity. If due caution is practiced in 



STEAM BOILERS 



351 



regard to handling drafts, there is very seldom a loss of 
over 5 to 8 per cent due to lack of air. 

On the other hand, if there be too great an excess of 
air, it would not only furnish oxygen for combustion in 
sufficient quantities, but the excess would be heated as it 
passes through the boiler from a temperature of the 
outside air to a temperature of the flue gases, thus taking 
up part of the heat which would be transferred to the 
water. This loss generally amounts to from 4 to 10 per 
cent. 

481. Smoke prevention. — Black smoke is caused by in- 
complete combustion. It is generally noticed when start- 
ing a fire or when fresh coal is put on. To avoid as 
much of this as possible, keep the fire hot and feed the 
coal in small quantities. Do not have the door open 
longer than is absolutely necessary, as the excess of air 
cools the fire and instead of burning the CO to COo, it 
passes ofY as CO or free carbon, which causes the smoke. 

HANDLING A BOILER 

482. The flues are made of a soft, tough iron or steel. 
They are put in place, then expanded with a tube ex- 





FIG. 240 — FLUE EXPANDED WITH 
PROSSER EXPANDER 



FIG. 241 — KLUE EXPANDED WITH 
DUDGEON EXPANDER 



352 FARM MOTORS 

pander to a steam-tight joint. The Prosser and Dudgeon 
expanders are the two types in common use. 

The Prosser makes a shoulder on the inside of the 
sheet as well as on the outside, but permits the tubes to 
touch only at the outer edges (Fig. 240), while the 
Dudgeon expander enlarges the end of the tube and 
causes it to fit the full thickness of the sheet (Fig. 241). 
Owing to the construction of this type of expander, it is 
preferable for repair work. 

483. Manholes and handholes. — These are openings in 
the boiler to permit of cleaning and examining. The 
use of a manhole is confined to stationary boilers and is 
generally placed near the top in an opening about 11X15 
inches. Handholes are generally in the water legs or 
near the bottom of the boiler. Their accustomed size is 
about 3X5 inches. The plate used to cover these holes 
is held in place by a bolt passing through a yoke. To 
secure a tight joint, a yi-inch gasket is placed between 
the plate and the boiler shell of the handholes. The 
same style of gasket is used for the manholes, but it 
should be about ^4 inch thick. 

484. Safety valves and steam gauges. — The safety valve 
should be placed in a pipe by itself, and this pipe should 
be inspected often for stoppages, etc. The safety valve 
and steam gauge should be set for the same pressures; 
that is, if the valve blows oft at no pounds, the gauge 
should not read 100 or 120. In case this should happen, 
do not set the valve to blow ofl according to the gauge 
until the gauge has been tested by some gauge known to 
be correct. During freezing weather the gauge should be 
taken off every night and put where it will not freeze. 
Every morning before starting up the safety valve should 
be tried to see that it neither leaks nor sticks. 

485. Water glass. — There is a cock at each end of the 



STEAM BOILERS 353 

glass tube. When these cocks are both open the water 
will pass from the boiler into the glass and stand at the 
same level as in the boiler, but if either one of the cocks 
be closed or the pipes leading to the cocks be stopped, the 
water would rise in the glass and give a false water level. 
If it is the upper one that is closed, the pressure in the 
boiler will cause the glass to fill, and if the lower one is 
closed, the glass will fill with condensed steam. Below 
this glass is another cock, which is used to drain the 
glass or blow out the other cocks. By opening this cock 
when there is pressure and closing the lower one leading 
to the glass, the upper one will blow out, or if the upper 
one is closed and the lower opened it will blow out. It 
is best to try the cocks every morning and see if they 
are open or free from stoppage. Always have some 
extra glasses along, for they are likely to break at any 
time. 

486. Leveling the water column. — Before firing up a 
boiler a new man should always determine the level of 
his water in the boiler as compared to the water column. 
If it is a stationary boiler, take ofif the manhole cover 
and fill until the water has reached the lowest limit in 
the glass. Then continue to fill until the proper height 
of water has been reached and again note the level in the 
glass. A good way to mark these points is to file notches 
in the guard wires which protect the glass. 

Should the boiler be traction or portable, it should be 
set on level ground and leveled up with a level. Then 
the water column should be leveled the same as in a 
stationary boiler. 

487. Feed pipe. — There is difference of opinion in re- 
gard to the place where the feed pipe should enter the 
boiler. In horizontal tubular boilers it generally enters 
near the front end and passes back through the boiler to 



354 PARM MOTORS 

near the back end before it discharges. In this way the 
feed water reaches nearly the temperature of the boiler 
water before it conies in contact with the shell or the 
tubes. In threshing boilers it generally enters on the 
side. Sometimes it enters near the bottom through the 
blow-ofif pipe. 

There should always be a hand valve in the feed pipe 
near the boiler and a check valve outside of this. The 
hand valve is placed close to the boiler so that in shut- 
ting down in cold weather the water can be shut ofif. 
Also if anything happens to the check valve, the hand 
valve can be closed while the former is being repaired. 
Where bad water is being used the feed pipe is likely 
to become choked with scale, and if the pump or injector 
fails to work it is often well to look in this pipe for the 
trouble. 

488. Firing. — Before firing up a boiler always see that 
there is plenty of water. Do not simply look at the 
glass, but clean the glass and see if it fills immediately. 
Try the try cocks and see if the water stands the same 
in them as in the glass. Notice the tubes and grates and 
see if they are clean. 

489. Firing with soft coal. — Soft coal should not be 
thrown in in chunks ; it should be broken into pieces 
about the size of a man's fist. Put the coal in quickly 
and scatter it over the fire as you throw it in. Keep the 
door open as short a time as possible, so that no more 
cold air will enter than can be helped. Keep the grates 
well covered with burning coal so that no cold air will 
come through them. If the boiler has more grate 
capacity than needed, do not keep fire on only a part of 
the grates, but check the fire by closing the drafts. When 
the fire cannot be kept down in this way without causing 
incomplete combustion, bricks may be placed over the 



STEAM nOlLERS 355 

back end of the grate and to a height equal to the bridge 
wall. 

Some furnaces and fuels require different depths of 
fire than others. The proper depth can be determined only 
by trial. Fine coal and a poor draft require a thinner fire 
than coarse coal and a strong draft. Engineers differ in 
regard to the best methods for keeping up a fire. Some 
suggest that it is best to keep the fresh coal near the 
door, and when it has become coked push it back to the 
rear, and again throw fresh coal in the front. By this 
method there is an intense fire maintained at the back of 
the furnace, and as the partially burned gases pass back 
they are completely burned. The advantage of this 
method lies in the fact that complete combustion is se- 
cured ; consequently there is less smoke, but there is a 
corresponding disadvantage in keeping the fire door open 
so long and allowing the furnace to cool slightly. 

490. Cleaning. — Do not clean oftener than necessary. 
Keep the clinker loosened from the grates between clean- 
ing times. Wdien cleaning large furnaces, rake all the 
iire to one side and then clean the grates. Rake a part 
of the live coals back on this side and put on fresh coal. 
When this is burning well clean the other side in the 
same manner. To clean small furnaces, crowd the fire 
back, clean the grates, then rake the fire forward again. 

491. Banking the fire. — Fires are banked to keep the 
steam from rising when there is a good fire, and also to 
hold the fire over night. Banking a fire consists in cover- 
ing the glowing coals with fresh coal or ashes. When 
banking a fire for the night, crowd the coals to the rear, 
then fill the front of the furnace with fresh coal, and open 
the damper over the fire enough to carry off the gases. 

• All drafts should be kept closed. By banking a fire this 
way it will gradually burn back toward the door, thus 



356 FARM MOTORS ^^ ' 



keeping the boiler warm, and in the morning there will 
be a good bed of coals which will start up readily. When 
a boiler is being used daily, it is considered more econom- 
ical to bank a fire than to let it go out and then rekindle it 
in the morning. 

492. Drawing a fire. — Fires are drawn when it is de- 
sired to cool the boiler down very quickly or when the 
water is dangerously low. A fire should never be drawn 
without first smothering it with ashes, dirt, or fresh coal. 
Drawing a fire without first doing this causes it to glow 
up, and for a moment become much hotter than before 
it was stirred. Never put water in a furnace, as it is 
liable to crack the grates. It will also produce so much 
steam that it will either blow back or else blow the fire 
out the door and make it too hot to work around. 

493. Priming. — When water is carried over from the 
boiler with the steam the boiler is said to be priming. 
Priming can always be detected by the click in the engine 
cylinder, which shows that there is water there. Taking 
too much steam from the boiler at once, carrying too 
much water, or not having enough steam space will cause 
priming. If the cause is too much water, blow out some 
and then slowly start the engine. Carrying a high steam 
pressure and keeping the water as low as possible will 
retard priming to a certain extent. 

494. Foaming is similar to priming, but it is generally 
caused by dirty or impure water. It can be detected by 
the rising and falling of the water in the gauge glass and 
by the engine losing power or speed ; also by the clicking 
in the cylinder. When a boiler foams, the engine should 
be shut down at once and the water in the boiler allowed 
to settle. So much water is carried over in the steam 
that the glass does not show the true level. If after 
settling down it is found that there is plenty of water over 



J 



STEAM BOILERS 357 

the flues, it will be safe to pumj) in more, but if the water 
is low, let the boiler cool down somewhat before filling. 

A boiler is more likely to foam with a high-water level 
than with a low. It is also more likely to foam with low 
pressure than high. A sudden strain on an engine will 
sometimes cause the boiler to foam. If a boiler is likely 
to foam, it is advisable to carry low water and high pres- 
sure. Then if it still persists in foaming, shut down and 
pump in a cjuantity of water and allow some to run out. 
This will change the water. If this does not remedy it, 
the boiler must be cleaned. 

495. Low water. — Should the water happen to get be- 
low the danger line in a boiler, immediately cover the fire 
with ashes, dirt, or even fresh coal, and as soon as it can 
be drawn without increasing the heat do so. But never 
draw the fire until it is in this condition. Do not start 
the feed pump, or start or stop the engine, or open the 
safety valve. Simply let it cool down. After it has be- 
come cool, then examine it for injuries. 

If a failure of the injector or pump has caused the 
water to become low and there is still an inch over the 
flues or crown sheet, the engine should be shut down and 
attention given to the feed supply. W' hen the water has 
become so low as this, do not try to repair the injector 
or pump with the engine still running, as it will run the 
water below the crown sheet before it is anticipated and 
thus make the boiler more dangerous. 

496. Corrosion and incrustation. — It is practically im- 
possible for an engineer to get for his boilers water which 
does not have some detrimental ingredients. Nearly all 
hard waters will form some sort of scale. W^hile soft 
waters do not do this, they do contain acids which act 
on the boiler and fittings in a harmful manner. 

The general impurities to contend with are the car- 



35^ FARM MOTORS 

bonates and sulphates of lime. These vary with the loca- 
tion and can be dealt with properly only after experiment. 
Generally, however, they are thrown down in the boiler 
in the form of a soft mud and can then be disposed of 
by blowing out and washing the boiler with a strong 
stream from a hose. The presence of other impurities, 
such as oils or organic matter, or even sulphates of lime, 
makes these lime scales hard and adhesive. Removing 
the water from the boiler while still hot will cause these 
scales to bake or dry on the parts, in which case it is 
very difificult to remove them. Wherever it is possible, 
run some soft water through the boiler for a few hours 
before cooling down to clean. The acids will act upon 
the limes and loosen them from the tubes, etc. 

Since the lime impurities of water are thrown down at 
a temperature of about 200° F., there are devices on the 
market which allow the feed water to mingle with the 
exhaust steam. This heats the former to a temperature 
sufficient to throw out the lime parts. 

497. Boiler cleaning. — It is essential that a boiler be 
kept clean both inside and out. Authorities have stated 
that one-tenth inch of scale will require 15 per cent more 
fuel. Boiler scale is a non-conductor of heat ; conse- 
quently, the flues must be kept hotter to affect the water 
as much with scale as without. 

The frequency of washing a boiler can only be deter- 
mined by experience with the water used and the sur- 
rounding conditions. Usually a traction boiler should 
be cleaned once a week, but there are wide variations 
from this rule. 

Often when there is considerable mud in the water it 
can be blown out by means of the lower blow-off valve. 
It is good practice to fill the boiler extra full at night; 
then in the morning when the sediment has settled and 



STEAM BOILERS 359 

there is about 20 pounds of steam, blow ofif through the 
lower valve until the proper water level has been reached. 
\A'hen the boiler is in operation the circulation keeps the 
dirt mixed and it does not avail much to blow off then. 

A good way to wash a boiler is to allow it to cool down 
until one can bear his hand in it; then open the blow-off 
valve and let the water run out. Remove the manhole 
and handhole plates and scrape all tubes and the shell 
with a scraper made for the purpose, then wash well with 
a hose and force pump. 

498. Cleaning the flues. — Fire tubes should be cleaned 
at least once a day, and sometimes oftener. This is done 
by means of a scraper or a steam jet. Scraping should 
always be done in the morning before firing up. Never 
do it just after the fire is started, for then the tubes are 
wet and pasty. If they have to be cleaned while running, 
do it as quickly as possible and let as little cold air as 
possible get into them. 

499. Boiler compounds. — Often there are cases where 
the impurities in boiler waters are such that they form 
a hard scale. In these cases it is nearly always advisable 
to use a boiler compound. If the proper compounds are 
used, they will dissolve the scale and throw it down in the 
form of a mud. Then it can be blown out. Wherever 
the scale does not become hard it is very seldom advisable 
to use a compound. 

Wherever a compound is necessary it is best to have a 
chemist analyze the water and make a compound to suit 
the case, giving directions as to use and quantity to be 
used. For traction and small creamery service this is 
not practical. Soda ash gives very good results for 
creamery service. It has no offensive odors and is com- 
paratively cheap. Sal soda has also been used with good 
results. For boilers where steam is used only for en- 



360 FARM MOTORS 

gines, kerosene is largely used. Kerosene is also good to 
remove scale already formed. Where a sight-feed lubri- 
cator is available, kerosene may be fed through it, but 
when not the kerosene may be put into a boiler before 
filling. The kerosene floats, and as the water rises it 
adheres to the sides and tubes. Avoid using a compound 
except when absolutely necessary. 

500. Blister. — A blister in a boiler is identical with a 
blister on the hand. On account of imperfect material or 
dirt, the metal will separate and one part will swell. 
Wherever there is a blister it is best to cut this part out 
and patch. If the blister is around the fire, a new half 
sheet should be put in. 

501. Bag in a boiler. — A boiler is likely to bag if dirty, 
or if a quantity of oil has found its way into it. The oil 
will stick in one place and keep the water away. Then 
the fire will overheat this place and the inside pressure 
force it out. In forcing out the place it breaks the oil 
scales and allows the water to run in and cool it ofT. 
Sometimes it is best to put in a new half sheet where a 
bag is formed, but often it can be repaired by heating the 
place and driving it back. 

502. Cracks sometimes form in the flue sheet because 
the flues are expanded too much. They are often formed 
in riveting. Whenever a crack is discovered it can be 
mended by drilling a hole in the end of the crack and 
putting in a rivet. This keeps the crack from getting 
larger; then the crack can be filled in. 

503. Laying up a boiler. — In laying up a boiler, always 
clean it thoroughly. Scrape and wash it inside and out, 
and then paint the outside with black asphaltum or 
graphite and oil. 



CHAPTER XIX 

STEAM ENGINES 

504. Early forms. — Hero of Alexandria is given credit 
for being the first man to use steam as an agent to con- 
vert heat energy mto mechanical energy. He produced 
an aeopile which operated with steam upon the same 
principle that our present-day centrifugal lawn sprinklers 
work with water. 

History gives us ideas which were advanced by certain men, but 
nothing of importance after Hero's machine until 1675, when, con- 
jointly, Newcomen, Calley, and Savery invented what has been known 
as the Newcomen engine. Fig. 242 is a drawing of this engine as 
it was used for pumping water. A is the pump plunger and is always 
held down by the weights B. The steam, after being generated in 
the boiler C, is passed through valve D to the cylinder F. The piston 
H, which is up as the steam enters, is connected with the pump by 
means of the walking beam /. When the cylinder F is filled with 
steam, the valve D is closed and the valve E opened, letting in a jet 
of water from the previously filled tank G. As the water enters the 
cylinder it condenses the steam F, thus producing a vacuum in the 
cylinder, consequently the atmosphere will act upon the piston H and 
force it down. As it forces the steam piston down it raises the 
piston A, and with it the water. 

After Newcomen, Watt produced probably the most important im- 
provement of the steam engine. It was in 1769 that he got out an 
engine which would not condense the steam in the working cylinder, 
and by so doing cool off the walls, but he condensed it in separate 
vessels, which produced a continuous vacuum. The same principle 
as that of Watt is in use in the condensing steam engine of to-day, 
the only changes being in the mechanism for admitting and releasing 
the steam, in mechanical make-up and methods whereby labor in the 
machine shop is reduced. 

505. The present engine. — The working parts of the 
present engine are .all of the same general plan, with dif- 



362 



FARM MOTORS 



I 



ferent designs for carrying out the actions. The prin- 
ciple is that of a cylinder separated into two parts by a 
piston. There is a valve connected with the cylinder by 




FIG. 242 — NEWCOMEN S ENGINE 

means of which the steam is thrown from one side to the 
other. This valve also conducts the exhaust steam out 
of the cylinder. In Fig. 243, A is a steam chamber which 
receives the steam from the boiler. B is the valve which 
slides back and forth on the valve seat /. The valve B, 
situated as it is in this figure, allows the steam to pass 



STEAM ENGINES 



363 



from the steam chest A, through the steam port C, into 
the front end of the cylinder D, and press against the 
piston E. This forces the piston through the cylinder 
toward the end P. At the same time the steam which 




FIG. 243 — CYLINDER AND VALVE OF STEAM ENGINE 



has been previously admitted to the end of the cylinder F 
is forced out through the cylinder port G into the ex- 
haust chamber H, and out through the exhaust port / 
into the air. By the time the piston E has reached the 
end of the stroke the valve B has reversed its position 
so that the steam chest A is connected with the end of 
the cylinder F by way of the steam port G. The exhaust 
port / is now connected with the exhaust end of the 
cylinder C, hence as the steam enters the cylinder at the 
end F it drives the piston toward the end D. 



364 



FARM MOTORS 




FIG. 244 



I. 


Base. 


10. 


Wrist pin. 


2. 


Cylinder. 


II. 


Crank pin. 


^■ 


Steam chest. 


12. 


Crank shaft. 


4- 


Piston. 


13- 


Eccentric. 


S- 


Valve. 


14. 


Eccentric strap. 


6. 


Piston rod. 


'5- 


Crank disk. 


7- 


Crosshead. 


16. 


Flywheel. 


8. 


Connecting rod. 


17- 


Valve rod guide 


9- 


Crosshead shoe. 







18. Eccentric rod. 

19. Valve rod. 

20. Steam inlet pipe. 
21-22. Steam ports. 

23. Exhaust pipe. 

24. Cylinder head. 
25-26. Packing boxes. 
27. Guides. 



506. Classification of steam engines. — 

Sneed -^ ^^^^ 

T^• •^- r c. ( Condensing: 

Disposition of Steam ] Non-Condensing 

Simple 



Number of Expansions 



j Single 
i Double 



i Tandem 
Compound -| Cross 
( Twin 



( Throttling Governor 
Speed Regulation -. Automatic 
( Corliss 



Stationary 
Kind of Work ■{ Marine 

Locomotive 



\ Rail 



] Traction 

Pressure on Piston \ ^'"^'^ Acting 
pressure on riston j j^^^^^^ Acting 



I 



i 



STEAM ENGINES 



365 



The classes of en,^ines j^^enerally used in agricultural 
pursuits would be known as high-speed, non-condensing, 
either simple, single or double, or conii)oun(l tandem or 
cross, throttling governed, either stationary or loco- 
motive traction and double-acting. 

507. Generation of steam. — Enclose i pound of water 
at a temperature of 32° F. in a cylinder under a movable 
frictiotdess piston. Suppose the piston to have an area 
of I square foot, but no weight other than the atmos- 
pheric pressure. Apply heat to the water and the follow- 
ing results will be noted : 

1 



gAJl l iMCi*. 



ft <? (? i^ 

ABODE 
FIG. 245 

^, one pound of water at 62° F. ; /'', one pound of water at 212° F., but lacks 
heat enough to turn it into steam ; C, is saturated steam in contact with the 
water ; D, one pound of steam at 212" F. ; E, one pound of superheated 
steam. 

1. The temperature rises, but the piston remains in the 
same position until a certain temperature is reached. 
When the piston commences to rise the degree of tem- 
perature is known as the boiling point. This point varies 
with the pressure. If the pressure bearing on the piston 
had been lo pounds to the square inch instead of 14.7, the 
boiling point would have been reached at a lower tem- 
perature, and if the pressure had been 20 pounds to the 
square inch, the boiling point would have had a higher 
temperature. 

2. As soon as the water has reached the boiling point, 
though heat still be applied, there is no further rise in 



366 FARM MOTORS 

temperature, but steam forms and the piston gradually 
rises. Since the water is passing into steam, it must be 
disappearing. During formation the steam and the water 
remain at the same temperature as the water was when 
steam commenced to form. The heat which has been 
continually added has been used to convert the water 
into steam and is known as latent heat. 

3. After all the water has been evaporated, if heat be 
still applied the temperature of the steam will commence 
to rise and the piston will also continue to rise. Since 
the steam is not now in contact with the water and is 
hotter than the steam was when formed and in contact 
with the water, we have superheated steam; in other 
words, steam which is heated above the temperature of 
the boiling point of water, which corresponds to the 
pressure at which it is generated. 

508.' Saturated steam is steam at its greatest possible 
density for its pressure. It is invisible and must con- 
tain no water in suspension ; in other words, it must be 
dry and still not be superheated. The temperature of 
saturated steam in the presence of water is the same as 
that of the water, and for steam of a given temperature 
there is only one pressure. If the temperature increases 
and the volume remains constant, the pressure does like- 
wise, for as the temperature increases more water is evap- 
orated, or if the temperature decreases the pressure does 
also and some of the water is condensed. 

509. Total heat of steam is made up of two com- 
ponents, heat of the li(|uid and latent heat. 

Heat of the liquid is the amount of heat there is in water 
at the temperature of the steam. 

Latent heat is the amount of heat required to evaporate 
I pound of water at a given temperature into steam at 
the same temperature. It is made up of two components. 



^ 



STEAM ENGINES 367 

One is the heat required to overcome the molecular re- 
sistance of water to changing from the liquid state to the 
gaseous. This is known as internal latent heat. The 
other component is the heat required to overcome the 
external resistance or pressure. 

510. Volume and weight of steam. — The weight of a 
cubic foot of steam at 212° F. is 0.03758. If the tempera- 
ture be increased to 337°, which corresponds to a gauge 
pressure of lOO pounds, the weight of a cubic foot will 
be 0.2589 pounds. By increasing the weight of steam 
we decrease the volume ; i.e., the volume of i pound of 
steam at 212° is 26.64 cubic feet, but at 337° it is only 
3.86 cubic feet. Hence when it is stated that steam has 
a volume of so many times the volume of an equal weight 
of water the temperature or pressure of the steam must 
be known. Often in testing a steam boiler it is assumed 
that as many pounds of steam are evaporated as there 
have been pounds of water fed to the boiler. This is an 
erroneous assumption, for there is always a certain per 
cent of the steam which is not steam but water in sus- 
pension. This, of course, will make the boiler appear 
to be generating more steam than it really is, but when 
this wet steam comes to the engine it will be charged 
against the engine as using all steam and consequently 
much more than is necessary, when in fact it is not using 
so much steam as is recorded, but is passing water 
through the cylinder. 

511. Expansion of steam. — When saturated steam is 
used in an engine without exjiansion only about 8 per 
cent of the heat expended is converted into useful work. 
By not admitting steam into the cylinder for the full 
length of stroke, as shown in a previous part of this 
chapter, but by cutting it oft during the first part of the 
stroke and allowing it to expand during the remaining 




368 FARM MOTORS 

part of the stroke, more 
work can b e obtained 
from the same amount of 
steam. 

In Fig. 246 let the dis- 
tance OV2 represent the 
length of stroke, OP,^ the 
pressure of steam as it en- 
ters the cylinder and while in communication with the 
boiler. If the piston starts at the point and travels to 
P\ with the valve wide open, steam will continue in the 
cylinder at the pressure of the boiler, i.e., the pressure at 
A will be the same as at P^ and the line P.^A will be paral- 
lel to the line 0V\. Now, if steam is cut off at P\ and no 
more allowed to enter, the pressure will fall as fast as the 
steam expands and the line AB is formed. During this 
part of the stroke all the work which is done in the cylin- 
der is due to the expansion of the steam which was ad- 
mitted during the first part of the stroke. When the piston 
reaches ['2 the steam is exhausted against a back pressure 
of OP,. 

The work done during the admission of steam is repre- 
sented by the area OP^AV^, and is all the work this 
amount of steam would do if it had not been allowed to 
expand. 

The work done during expansion is represented by the 
area V.ABV.. 

The total work done by the steam is the sum of these 
two areas, or OP^ABV^. 

Then, of the total work done by the steam that repre- 
sented by the area P^ABV^ is gained by using the steam 
expansively. 

512. Losses in a steam engine cylinder. — Only 2 to 10 
per cent of the total heat supplied to a non-condensing 



STEAM ENGINES 369 

Steam engine goes into useful work. In multiple-expand- 
ing steam engines this percentage is often raised as high 
as 20. The rest of the energy is lost by radiation, con- 
densation in the cylinder, and the amount carried away 
to exhaust. The temperature of the walls of the cylinder 
rises and falls as live steam enters and expands to the 
pressure of exhaust ; in other words, the cylinder walls 
have practically the same temperature as the exhaust 
steam, so when the live steam enters it heats the walls 
to a temperature nearly equal its own. This then is the 
loss due to radiation. As the steam expands in the cylin- 
der there is a great deal of it which condenses. Due to 
this condensation, the latent heat of the steam is thrown 
ofif, doing no work. Not only is all the heat left in that 
part of the steam which entered the cylinder to fill the 
piston displacement lost when release takes place, but 
about one-third of the steam which enters the clearance 
space is a total loss. Hence the smaller the clearance 
volume the more economical the engine. 

513. Slide valve. — The slide valve is the most common 
method for regulating the admission of steam to and ex- 
haust of the steam from a steam engine cylinder. Its 
functions are: (i) admission of the steam to the cylinder 
to give the piston an impulse ; (2) to cut off the supply 
of steam at the proper point; (3) to open a passage for 
the escape or exhaust of the steam from the cylinder; 
(4) to close the exhaust port at the proper time to 
retain enough steam in the cylinder to give the piston a 
cushion. 

514. Lap of valve. — When the valve is in mid position 
(Fig. 247) the amount it laps over the edges of the steam 
port is known as lap. The amount which the valve laps 
over the outside is outside lap. and that which it laps 
over the inside is inside lap. 



370 



FARM MOTORS 




b b 

FIG. 247 

Object of lap. — Lap is put on the slide valve to secure 
the benefit of working steam expansively. If a valve 
has no lap, steam will be admitted the full length of the 
stroke and allowed to escape to the exhaust at boiler 
pressure. By the application of lap, steam is cut ofif from 
the boiler when the piston has traversed from three- 
eighths to five-eighths of the stroke, and as the piston 
completes the stroke the steam does work by expanding. 

515. Lead is given to a valve to admit steam to the 
cylinder just before the piston reaches the end of the 
stroke. By so doing a cushion is produced in the cylin- 
der upon which the piston acts and this saves a jar. 
Lead not only produces this cushion efifect, but also 
causes the port to be partly opened so that a full amount 
of steam can be admitted to the cylinder the instant the 
piston starts on its return stroke. Lead afifects the ex- 



.wvwvw 




OranK 



FIG. 248 






3 



STEAM ENGINES 



371 



haust port by having it ojien in time for the exhaust 
steam to be sufficiently released so that at the instant 
liie piston starts on the return stroke there is no back 
pressure. Fig. 248 shows the lead, both inlet and ex- 



^\vwv\vvs 





EccenrriG 



FIG. 249 

haust. Fig. 249 shows the valve when at its end of the 
stroke, showing that the exhaust port is completely 
opened, but that the inlet is not necessarily so. Fig. 250 
represents the position of the valve when the piston is 
at the opposite end of the stroke. It will be noticed that 




or 



CranK 



FIG. 250 

the lead in this case is the same as that in Fig. 248. This 
should be true in all engines. 

A lead of 1/32 inch is about proper for most engines. 
Too much lead in a valve allows steam to enter the cylin- 
der so soon that the piston has to complete its stroke 
against boiler pressure, hence a loss of energy. Also 



372 FARM MOTORS 

where there is too much lead the exhaust port is likely to 
open so soon that the steam is released before it expands 
as much as possible. Again, if it has not sufficient lead 
there will be no cushioning efifect, and in addition suffi- 
cient steam will not have entered the cylinder by the|| 
time the piston starts on the return stroke to produce the 
maximum pressure. 

516. Eccentric. — The eccentric is a mechanism often! 
used where it is impossible to use a crank. The eccentric 
of a steam engine consists of a disk or sheave fastened to 
the crank shaft in such a manner that it is eccentric orj 
out of center with the center of the shaft. Around this 
sheave is the eccentric strap, which is so adjusted that 
there is a free and smooth bearing surface between the 
two. The eccentric rod, which actuates the valve, is at- 
tached to a strap and gives to the valve a reciprocating 
motion similar to that of the piston, but on a reduced 
scale. The throw of the eccentric, which is also the 
travel of the valve, is twice the distance from the center 
of the eccentric to the center of the shaft. In other 
words, it is the same as that of a crank whose length of 
arm is equal to the eccentricity of the eccentric. 

517. Angle of advance. — On a slide-valve engine, with 
the valves properly set when the engine is on dead center, 
the center line of the eccentric will not be at right 
angles to the crank, but will be at an angle greater than 
a right angle. The difference between this angle and a 
right angle is known as the angle of advance. 

The size of this angle varies with different engines, 
but it is generally from 10° to 20°. The object of the 
angle of advance is to give the engine lead, and to vary 
the lead means to change the position of the eccentric on 
the shaft. Changing the position of the eccentric changes 
the angle of advance. 



STEAM ENGINES 



373 



In Fig. 251 let //B be the travel of the valve, OA the 
position of the crank, and OC the position of the eccen- 
tric. Then the angle COD, or G, is the angle of advance. 
A perpendicular let fall from C to OB gives the distance 
OE, which designates the position of the valve. In this 
instance it also gives the lead, i.e., OE, is the lead of the 
valve. If the position of the crank is changed from OA 

D 




FIG. 251 



FIG. 252 — DOUBLE-PORTED VALVE 



to OA^ the valve will move the distance OE^ or a total 
distance of EE^ -\- OE = OE^. 

518. Double-ported valves. — The common slide valve 
has to travel so far in opening a steam port that there is 
considerable wire drawing 01 the steam as it enters the 
cylinder; also it does not permit a free release of the ex- 
haust steam. Some manufacturers are putting in their en- 
gines a double-ported valve (Fig. 252) which gives about 
the same port opening as the simple slide valve and with 
only half the travel. 

519. Balanced valve. — By mspecting Fig. 243 it will be 
noticed that there is high-pressure steam all over the out- 
side of the valve and none on the inside. This excessive 
pressure on the outside causes a large amount of friction 
between the valve and the valve seat. To overcome this 



374 FARM MOTORS i^H i 

excessive friction balanced valves are now made. Some 
have on the back a friction ring, which is held against 
the steam chest by coil springs or live steam in such a 
manner that the steam does not get behind the valve. 
Other valves are so constructed that the high pressure steam 

is kept from the back of the 
valve by means of pieces of 
strap steel working in grooves 
in the back of the valve. These 
pieces of steel are generally 
held out against the steam chest cover by means of coil 
springs. Fig. 253 illustrates this type of valve. 

520. Piston valve. — The piston valve is probably the 
most effectually balanced valve. The principle of this 
valve is the same as that of the common slide valve, but 
instead of having a seat it is cylindrical in form and has 
packing rings the same as a piston, making it steam 
tight (Fig. 254). 




FIG. 253 




FIG. 254 — riSTON VALVE 



STEAM ENGINES 375 

521. Dead center. — An enj^inc is on dead center when 
a straight line passing^ throuj^h the centers of the cross- 
head and crank shaft will pass through the crank pin. If 
an engine is on dead center it will not start, although the 
ports may be open. Locomotives and often traction en- 
gines have two cylinders with their cranks at right an- 
gles, so that one or the other will always be off center, 
and consequently will start without turning the wheel by 
hand. 

Locating dead center. — When the crank is passing dead 
center the piston moves so slowly that a movement of 
2 or 3 inches of the crank is hardly perceptible on the 
piston. Tliis, however, is not true of the valve, for when 
the crank is passing dead center the valve is moving its 
fastest, consequently it is essential that dead center be 
definitely determined. About the simplest and most ac- 
curate method for putting an engine on dead center is 
by means of a tram (Fig. 255). At some convenient 
place in the engine frame make a clear, sharp-cut center- 
punch mark, and with the flywheel about one-eighth 




FIG. 255 — TRAM FIG. 256 



revolution off center make another center-punch mark in 
the wheel. Set the tram in the center-punch marks as 
shown in Fig. 256. Now with a sharp knife make a mark 
C across the intersection of the crosshead an dthe guide. 
Turn the wheel down until the mark on the crosshead 
and the guide come together again, then make another 
mark in the wheel so that the tram will drop into it as 



376 FARM MOTORS 

in Fig. 257. Having done this, find the point E, midway 
between the two marks on the flywheel, and make a 
punch mark there. Turn the wheel until the tram drops 
into this mark (Fig. 258), and the engine will be on dead 
center. To find the opposite dead center do likewise or 




FIG. 257 FIG. 258 



measure half around the wheel. When it is inconvenient 
to measure on the flywheel, the crank disk can often be 
used. 

522. Setting the slide valve. — To set the slide valve, 
remove the steam chest cover and put the engine on dead 
center. Turn the eccentric on the shaft until it is 90°, or 
a quarter of a revolution, ahead of the crank in the direc- 
tion the engine is to run. Now adjust the valve on the 
rod until it is at its center of travel, then again move the 
eccentric ahead, this time only until sufificient lead is ob- 
tained. Fasten the eccentric to the shaft and tighten up 
the lock nuts on the valve ; then turn the engine over to 
the other dead center and see if both sides have the same 
lead. If the lead is the same in both ends, the valve may 
be set. If there is more lead in one end than the other, 
move the valve on the rod an amount equal to one-half 
the difiference. If now the valve has too much or too 
little lead, the eccentric should be slipped forward or 
backward, as the case may require. 

Moving the eccentric in the shaft increases or dimin- 
ishes the lead, depending upon the direction it is moved. 



STEAM ENGINES 



377 



'''""7/n 



Moving the valve on the rod increases or diminishes the 
difference in lead. 

If an engine has a rocker arm pivoted in the center, 
move the eccentric in the opposite direction. Otherwise 
proceed in the same manner as without the rocker arm. 

523. Reversing a simple slide valve engine. — To set the 
valve of a simple engine so that the engine will run back- 
ward, or, as is often termed, under, remove the steam 

chest cover, set the engine 
on dead center, and ascer- 
tain the lead. Now loosen 
the eccentric from the shaft 
and turn it backward until 
the lead is again the same 
as before. The distance 
which the eccentric is to be 
turned backward should be 
180° plus twice the angle 
^^^- 259 of advance (Fig. 259). 

I'he valve does not need to be moved on the rod, nor 
the ro'd lengthened or shortened. The only caution neces- 
sary is to be sure that the lead is always on the end the 
piston is on when the engine is on center. 

An engine running backward or under will do just as 
much w^ork as one running forward or over,«but when it 
is running over the pressure of the crosshead is always 
down, while wdien it is running under the weight of the 
crosshead and connecting rod is down, but the pressure 
caused by the steam on the piston and the angle of the 
connecting rod and piston rods will be up ; hence there 
are two forces working in opposition at the crosshead, 
and this will cause an up-and-down pound. Not only 
this, but if an engine runs over, this force will all be ex- 
erted upon the engine bed and not the frame. 




Hmin'n'} 



378 FARM MOTORS 

524. Reversing gears. — Since the simple engine cannot 
be reversed without stopping and using time, engines 
which have to be reversed often and quickly are provided 
with reversing gears. That is, they are arranged so they 
can be reversed with a lever. There are two general 
classes of reversing gears, the double-eccentric and the 
single-eccentric. 

525. Hooking up an engine. — Some engine makers des- 
ignate their reversing gears as expansion gears. Such 
gears are simply reversing gears which can be used so 
that the steam works on expansion. Reversing gears are 
actuated by means of a lever which works in a quadrant. 
When the lever is in one half of the quadrant steam is 
admitted so that the engine runs under, and when in the 
other half the engine runs over. These gears are gen- 
erally so constructed that if the engineer wishes his fly- 
wheel to run in a direction away from him he moves the 
lever in the direction the wheel turns, and if he wishes 
the wheel to run toward him, he moves his lever in that 
direction. Some engines are connected up in the oppo- 
site manner. When an engine is carrying an overload, 
the lever is thrown into the last notch in the quadrant 
and the piston receives steam nearly the full length of 
the stroke. Although this has to be resorted to in some 
instances, it is not an economical way to run an engine, 
as the steam has no chance to expand. When an engine 
is running on full load, that is, when it is doing only its 
rated capacity of work, the lever should not be in the 
end notch of the quadrant, but should be somewhere be- 
tween the end notch and the middle. By having an en- 
gine hooked up, steam is cut off in an earlier part of the 
stroke and consequently works on expansion the remain- 
ing part. 

526. Double-eccentric reverse or link-motion reverse. — 



STEAM ENGINES 



379 




FIG. 260 — PRINCIPLE OF STEPHEN- 
SON LINK MOTION 



There are several types of this reverse, but probably the 
Stephenson link is the most popular. It will be described 
here. In Fig. 260, A is the quadrant over which the 
reverse lever B works. The reverse lever B, acting through 
the rocker arm C, raises and lowers the link H. F and G 

are eccentric rods connected 
at one end with the eccen- 
trics D and E, respectively, 
and at the other end with the 
ends of the link H. / is a 
block which is attached to 
this end of the valve rod and 
is worked over by the link 
H. With the reverse lever in 
the position in which it 
now is, the eccentric D, through the rod F and block /, 
actuates the valve. By throwing the reverse lever to the 
other end of the quadrant, the link is raised so the eccen- 
tric E, through the rod G and the block /, actuates the 
valve. It will be noticed that the angles of advance of 
these two eccentrics are practically the same as they 
were for the two positions of the eccentric in Fig. 259, 
where the simple engine was reversed. Thus it is seen 
that the engine has been reversed by simply shifting the 
motion of the valve from an eccentric which runs the 
engine under by means of the link H and the block /, to 
an eccentric which runs it over. If the reverse lever is 
hooked up in the middle notch of the quadrant, the block 
/ will be acted upon by both eccentrics, one acting in one 
direction and the other oppositely ; consequently there is 
only a very slight movement of the valve. 

Setting the double-eccentric valve. — Put the engine on 
dead center and drop the link down as far as possible and 
still have clearance between the link and the block ; then 



38o 



FARM MOTORS 



set the valve in the same manner as a simple slide valve. 
To set the other eccentric, raise the link and proceed in 
the same manner, but remember the engine is to run in 
the opposite direction. 

527. Single-eccentric reverse gear. — Like the double- 
eccentric reverse, there are several types of the single- 
eccentric reverse, but the Woolf reverse gear, being the 




FIG. 261 — WOOLF REVERSE GEAR 



// ^» 




FIG. 263 — PRINCIPLE OF WOOLF REVERSE GEAR 



STEAM ENGINES 381 

most common, will be discussed here. This reverse gear 
(Fig. 261) has few parts to wear and get out of order 
and may be set so that steam can be used on expansion. 

It will be noticed that in this reverse gear (Fig. 262) 
the throw of the eccentric is set opposite to the crank 
instead of about at right angles to it, as shown with other 
gears. By moving the lever from one end of the quadrant 
to the other the guide A, which carries the roller B, 
changes position as shown by dotted lines. This causes 
the valve to move in the opposite direction. All types 
of reversing gears have some mechanical means of oper- 
ating the throw of the valve. This is ecpiivalent to 
changing the position of the eccentric in the shaft, and 
if one method of setting the valve is mastered all others 
will be easily picked up. 

528. Angularity of connecting rod. — Due to the angu- 
larity of the connecting rod, the piston of an engine 
travels faster and farther while the crank is passing 
through the half of its rotation nearer the cylinder than 

it does while the crank 
travels the opposite half of 
its rotation. By reference 
to Fig. 263 it will be no- 
ticed that the crank has 
traveled only half its dis- 

FTP 26 "^ 

tance and the piston has 
passed over more than half its stroke. As the crank 
passes through the other half of its revolution, which 
it does in the same time as it did the first half, the 
piston travels as much less than half its stroke as it trav- 
eled more than half during the first revolution of the 
crank, consequently does not travel nearly as fast during 
this half of the time as it does during the other half. 
Because of this unequal travel of the piston one end of 




382 



FARM MOTORS 



1 



the cylinder is doing more work than the other, and as 
a result there is excessive vibration and unequal strain 
in the parts. It is impossible to change the connecting 
rod, but there are now valve gears on the market which 
partly rectify the defect by the manner in which they 
admit the steam. Owing to mechanical complications 
which arise, it is still a question as to the advisability 
of putting these valves on small engines. 

529. The indicator diagram.— Fig. 264 is an ideal indicator dia- 
gram and can be described as follows : The line xy is traced on the 
paper with no pressure in the cylinder, i.e., it is the atmospheric line. 

B, C 




FIG. 264 FIG. 265 

The point A shows when steam commences to enter the cylinder. 
Point B is the maximum pressure and the time when the steam port 
is opened its full amount. From 5 to C the port is open, and the 
pressure is the same as B. At C the cut-off takes place and the 
steam works on expansion. At D the exhaust port opens, and from 
D to E the pressure drops to the pressure at which the steam exhausts 
to the air. From £ to F is back pressure, due to exhaust. At F com- 
pression takes place and lasts until A is reached. 
The different parts of the diagram are known as follows : 
xy. Atmospheric line, 

AB. Admission line, 

BC. Steam line, 

CD. Expansion line, 

DE. Exhaust line, 

EF. Back pressure line, 

FA. Compression line, 
A. Point of admission, 

C. Point of cut-off, 

D. Point of release, 

F. Point of compression. 



STEAM ENGINES 



3?3 



There are mechanical difficulties which must be taken into con- 
sideration; hence the diagram as usually obtained from a steam 
engine cylinder is not like F"ig. 264, but is like Fig. 265. Here the 
corners arc rounded ofi. due to wire drawing and slow-acting valves. 
The line BC drops, due to the resistance of steam moving through 
the boilers. The point C is not a sharp one, since the valve cannot 
move quickly enough to cut off steam instantaneously, but commences 
to cut ofT at C, and complete cut-off takes place at C. This fall in 
pressure after the valve commences to cut off and before it com- 
pletely cuts off is known as wire drawing. Often the exhaust valve 
does not open soon enough for the pressure to fall to the back 
pressure line before the piston starts in the return stroke; hence the 
line DE of Fig. 264 is more like the line DE of Fig. 265. 

530. Attaching indicator to engine. — Where indicator diagrams 
are to be taken from engines of 100 H.P. or more it is better 
to have two indicators, one for each end of the cylinder; but for 
engines of a capacity such as are used on the farm or in cream- 
eries one indicator connected to both ends of the cylinder by means 
of a three-way cock is fully as accurate as two. If there are no 
holes for attaching the indicator when the engine comes from the 
factory, drill into each clearance space A A (Fig. 266) of the cylin- 




FIG. 266 — ATTACHING AN INDICATOR TO AN ENGINE 



der a hole of sufficient size to thread for ^-inch or '/-inch pipe, and 
by means of pipe fittings connect up to the three-way cock B. The 
connection on the indicator will screw into the cock at C. Since 



384 



FARM MOTORS 



the throw of the indicator drum is only aliout ^Vz inches and the 
stroke of the piston is 8 to 20 inches, the length of stroke of the 
piston has to be reduced to that of the indicator. There are several 
mechanisms for this purpose, some of which come with the indi- 
cator (Fig. 267). If a reducing motion has to be devised, probably 
that shown in Fig. 268 is the most simple. 




FIG. 267 — REDUCING MOTION 
ATTACHED TO INDICATOR 



FIG. 268 



531. Taking indicator diagrams. — To take an indicator diagram 
the string after being hooked up should be of proper length to give 
the indicator drum a clear movement. When the indicator is rotat- 
ing back and forth, if the pencil is held against it the atmospheric 
line may be drawn. The cock should then be opened and the 
steam allowed to enter from one end of the cylinder until the indi- 
cator has become warmed up. Then the pencil should be held 
against the drum while the piston takes two or three strokes. A 
diagram can be taken from the other end of the cylinder on this 
same card by simply turning the cock over, or this card may be 
taken out and a new one put in. 

532. Reading an indicator diagram. — To read an indicator for 
perfect valve setting it is best to compare it with a perfect diagram. 
It is assumed that in the diagram Fig. 269 the heavy line is the per- 
fect one and those with dotted lines are taken from engines with 
poorly set valves. 

a shows too early compression. 

o' shows too late compression. 

b shows excess of lead. 

b' shows insufficient lead. 

c shows wire drawing. 

s' shows late release. 

J shows early release. 



STEAM ENGINES 



3S5 



To read an indicator diagram for pressures. — Whenet'cr pos- 
sible the scales should be divided into parts equivalent to the scale 
of the spring, i. e., if the spring is 60 pounds to the inch the scales 
should be divided into 60 parts. Whenever this is not possible a 
tenths or hundredths scale may be used. The scale shown in Fig. 




1 



FIG. 269 



FIG. 270 



270 is a tenths scale, and it now reads 1.7 inches with a 60-pound 
spring. This gives a steam pressure at that point of 

1.7 X 60= 102.0 pounds. 
If the scale is moved down to the point of release it reads 
0.45 X 60 = 27.00 pounds. 

533- Governors. — The object of a governor is to main- 
tain as nearly as possible a uniform speed of rotation of 
the engine. When the speed of the engine varies through 
several revolutions because of variation of load or boiler 
pressure, the governor will aid in regulating it, but if 
the variation of speed is confined to a single revolution 
or a part of a revolution, the variation must be cared for 
in the Hywheel. Since governors for steam engines are 
attached to the engine, they cannot regulate the speed 
exactly, for they cannot act until the engine does. In 
other words, the engine has to commence to slow down 
before the governor will be affected. It then takes the 
governor a little time to act, and consequently the engine 
has quite a chance to vary its speed of rotation. In 
practice, however, when a slight change of speed takes 
place, a good governor acts instantly and allows only a 



386 



FARM MOTORS 



very small variation of speed. Governors regulate the 
speed of an engine in two ways : by varying the steam 
pressure as it enters the cylinder, and by varying the 
point of cut-off. . 

534. Throttling governors. — Governors which act upon 
the steam in such a manner as to vary the pressure in 
the cylinder are known as throttling governors (Fig. 
2yi). In other words, they throttle the steam before it 
enters the steam chest so there is not enough admitted 
to fill the space intended for it. Therefore, boiler pres- 
sure is not attained, and consequently the steam does 
not exert as much force upon the piston as when the 
governor is not acting. As a result, the engine does not 
do its full capacity of work. 




FIG. 272 — SECTIONAL VIEW OF 
FIG. 271 — THROTTLING GOVERNOR THROTTLING GOVERNOR 



STEAM ENGINES 3S7 

Principle of the throttling go7'crnor. — Fi^. 272 is a 
sectional view of a throttling- g-overnor. The governor is 
generally placed upon the steam chest, and when not in 
this place it must be as close to it as possible. 

Steam enters the governor from the boiler through 
the pipe A. Passing through the governor valve B, it 
enters the steam chest C. If the valve B is clear up, 
which is analogous to wide open, the steam passes into 
the steam chest unmolested as far as pressure is con- 
cerned, but if the valve B is partly closed the steam is 
throttled as it passes the valve. Consequently the pres- 
sure in the steam chest is not as great as in the steam 
pipe A. From this it is seen that the only requisite for 
a governor, other than the design of valve B, is some 
device which will raise and lower the valve B as the 
speed of the engine increases or decreases. 

The pulley D is run by a belt from the engine shaft, 
and whenever the speed of the engine varies the speed 
of this pulley also varies. By means of the beveled 
pinions E and F the motion is transmitted from the 
pulley D to the governor balls G and H. With no motion 
in the pulley D these balls hang down, but as soon as the 
pulley commences to revolve the balls do likewise, and, 
due to centrifugal force, they commence to rise. When 
the engine attains its full speed the balls, acting through 
the arms / and / and valve rod, should have partly 
closed the valve. By having the valve partly closed when 
the engine is running at its normal speed there is oppor- 
tunity for the valve to be opened when the speed drops. 
If the engine is not carrying full load it will be inclined 
to run too fast. This increased speed of the engine 
causes the governor balls to rise higher and consequently 
close the valve a trifle. It will be noticed that the gov- 
ernor balls are not only acting on the valve D, but are 



388 FARM MOTORS 

also acting on the spring. Hence if the spring K is 
tightened by screwing down on the hand wheel L the 
engine will have to be running faster before the governor 
will act. If the hand wheel is loosened, the balls will 
act more quickly, and consequently the engine cannot 
attain so high a speed. 

If the belt of this governor be taken ofif, the engine 
will have to be controlled by the throttle, since there is 
nothing else to prevent the steam from flowing into the 
cylinder as fast as the cylinder will take it. If there is 
no one at hand to control the throttle, the engine will 
run away. This is the reason why so many engines run 
away when the governor belt breaks. A great many 
governors are now equipped with an idle pulley running 
on the governor belt. This pulley is attached to the 
throttle in such a manner that when the belt breaks the 
pulley is free to fall, and by so doing closes the throttle 
and stops the engine. 

535. Racing. — An engine is said to be racing when its 
speed of rotation fluctuates badly with a constant load. 
Racing in nearly all cases is caused by the governor. 
Either it is not working satisfactorily, or else it is poorly 
designed. If the valve stem is packed very tight, the 
engine will have to attain a very high speed before the 
balls have sufficient force in them to force the valve down. 
Then when it is down the engine has to slow down en- 
tirely too much before the spring will have the energy to 

force the valve up. An en- 
gine will also race if the gov- 
ernor belt is loose and slips, 
or if the governor is im- 
properly oiled. 

536. Indicator diagrams 
pjc 273 from a throttling-governed 




STEAM ENGINES 



389 



engine. — The indicator diagram shows more clearly the 
effect of throttling the steam of an engine than any de- 
scription. Fig. 273 shows a diagram taken from an 
engine ; No. i, with full load ; No. 2, with about half load ; 
No. 3, with about cjuarter load. 

In all the diagrams it will be noticed that the 
points of compression, admission, cut-off, and release 
remain constant, while the steam and expansion lines 
vary. 

537. Automatic cut-off governor. — Steam cannot be 
used as economically under low pressure as under high, 




FIG. 274 



390 



FARM MOTORS 



I 



hence when the steam is throttled down as in No. 3 (Fig. 
2,'j'^ it is not as economical as when used at full pressure. 
To overcome this loss in throttling--governed engines, 
automatic cut-off governors have been devised. These 
governors act in such a manner that they do not throttle 
the steam as it enters the engine, but change the point 
of cut-off and by so doing permit steam to enter for a 
shorter or longer part of the stroke (as the speed of the 
engine requires) at boiler pressure and allow it to work 
on expansion. Fig. 274 represents the outline of an auto- 
matic cut-off governor. A is the flywheel which carries the 
governor mechanism ; B, the governing mechanism ; C, 
the eccentric sheave ; E, a slot in the eccentric sheave 
within which the engine shaft revolves. As the speed of 
rotation of the engine varies, the weight B will move 
the sheave C backward or forward across the engine 

shaft. This change in the 

HOOT ^ _ ^ 

position of the eccentric 
sheave changes the throw 
of the eccentric and conse- 
quently the point of cut-off 
of the valve. Fig. 275 shows 
indicator diagrams with 
varying loads. No. i is 
overload ; No. 2, full load ; 
No. 3, about half load, and No. 4, practically no load. 
The steam line for all loads is the same, but the 
point of cut-off varies, thus giving an increased or 
reduced amount of energy exerted on the piston. 
Diagram No. 4 shows how the steam has expanded 
below atmospheric pressure, and when the exhaust 
port is opened the pressure rises instead of falling. 
The area below the atmospheric line is then negative 
work. Instead of working a large engine on as light a 




FIG. 275 



STEAM ENGINES 



391 



load as this, much of the time it is more economical to 
use a smaller engine. 

538. Corliss-governed engines have a great many eco- 
nomical advantages over other types of engines: (i) re- 
duced clearance volume, due to the proximity of the 
valves to the cylinder; (2) separate valves for steam and 
exhaust, the steam 

valves being on top and 
the exhaust beneath, so 
there is a free and short 
passage for the water to 
leave the cylinder; (3) 
a wide opening of the 
steam valve and a very 
quick closing at cut-off, 
thus giving a sharp point 
of cut-off without wire 
drawing ; (4) the valve 
mechanism permits of 
independent adjustment 
of admission and cut-off 
release and compres- 
sion. The disadvantages 
of this engine are that it 

is of necessity slow speed, and hence to get the required 
power must be large. This makes the first cost great, 
not only in the engine itself, but in the material for an 
engine room. 

539. A double-cylinder engine (Fig. 276), or a double 
engine, as it is sometimes called, is an engine which has 
two cylinders, both of which take the steam directly from 
the boiler. Both cylinders of a double engine should be 
connected to the same crank shaft, and their cranks 
should be at an angle of 90° with each other. The only 




FIG. 276 — DOUBLE-CYLINDER ENGINE 



392 FARM MOTORS 

advantages to be gained from a double-cylinder engine 
are: (i) being able to start without turning off dead 
center by hand ; (2) being able to start with a heavy load ; 
and (3) being able to move slowly with a heavy load. 
If the cranks were set in line with each other, these ad- 
vantages would not be gained. The disadvantages of a 
double engine are : more moving parts, greater chances 
for steam to leak about the cylinder and the piston, and 
more cooling surface, hence greater condensation during 
the working stroke. Although a double engine is more 
easily handled than a single one, there are only a few in- 
stances, such as plowing and heavy traction work, where 
its use is recommended for farm work. 

540. Compound engines. — The purpose of compound 
engines is not to give a greater expansion. This could 
be accomplished with the low-pressure C3dinder and early 
cut-off. The real purpose is ( i) to keep the cylinders as 
nearly as possible at the temperature of the entering 
steam, preventing losses by condensation; (2) to reduce 
the surface exposed to the high-pressure steam to a mini- 
mum ; (3) to use the high-pressure steam in a small 
cylinder, hence requiring less material to make it suffi- 
ciently strong. 

The first cylinder, known as the high-pressure cylin- 
der, expands the steam partly ; then the second, or low- 
pressure, receives it and expands it further. Since the 
steam as it enters the high-pressure cylinder is under a 
higher pressure than when it enters the low-pressure 
cylinder, the latter cylinder must be larger than the 
former to accommodate the increased volume of the 
steam. Where steam is expanded in two cylinders the 
engine is known as a double-expansion compound ; where 
it is expanded in three cylinders it is known as triple- 
expansion, and in four cylinders it is known as quadruple- 



STEAM ENGINES 



393 




394 



FARM MOTORS 



expansion. When one cylinder is in front of the other, 
the engine is said to be a tandem compound, and when 
the cylinders are side by side it is said to be a cross- 
compound engine. Fig. 2^^ shows the Woolf tandem- 
compound engine in common use in traction service. 

The arrows show the 
direction of the steam as 
it passes from cylinder 
to cylinder. Fig. 278 il- 
lustrates a cross-com- 
pound engine, showing 
how the steam passes 
through a superheater as 
it travels from the high- 
pressure to the low- 
pressure cylinder. It also 
shows the relative sizes 
of the two cylinders. 

541. Horse power of 
steam engines. — There 
are three methods of rat- 
ing steam engines. One 
method is by the indi- 
cated horse power, 
which is the total work 
exerted by the steam in the cylinder ; the second 
method is the actual or brake horse power (see Chapter 
I), which is the actual work delivered from the fly- 
wheel of the engine ; and the third is the commercial 
rating. 

542. Commercial rating of steam engines. — The com- 
mercial rating of all stationary steam engines is about 
their actual horse power, but the commercial rating of 
traction steam engines is far below their actual horse 




FIG. 278— CROSS-COMPOUND ENGINE 



STEAM ENGINES 395 

power. This is a custom which originated in the horse 
power and is to be regretted. 

At the time separators were run with horse power they 
were smaller than they are now and with fewer acces- 
sories. At that time 12 horses, by being overworked, 
would run the separator, but now the separators are 
larger and are equipped with self-feeders, band cutters, 
wind stackers, weighers, etc. All of this causes the new 
separators to run several horse power harder than the 
old ones. Although the present separators require much 
more power than the former ones did, competition has 
kept the rating of the engines down to that of the horse 
power, while factories are building them much larger. 
Most traction engines will develop at the brake three 
times as much power as their rated capacity. 

A better way to judge the capacity than by its com- 
mercial rating is by the diameter of the cylinder, the 
length of stroke, and the number of revolutions of the 
flywheel a minute. 

HANDLING AN ENGINE 

543. Starting the engine. — In starting an engine the 
operator should always see that the cylinder cocks are 
opened. While the engine has been stopped the steam 
has condensed and caused considerable water to form in 
the cylinder, and if there is not some means of letting 
this out there is danger of injury to the working parts. 
Even if no water has collected in the cylinder while the 
engine has been standing, the cylinder walls will be cold 
and condense the steam as it first enters. It is also well 
to open the pet cocks from the steam chest and allow the 
water in there to drain out, and not be carried through 
the cylinder. The throttle should be only partly opened 
at first in order to allow the cylinder to become warmed 



396 FARM MOTORS 

up before full steam is turned on. If full steam is turned 
on at once there is danger of more water being condensed 
than the cylinder cocks will carry away. If the engine 
has a reverse gear, it may be worked back and forth and 
thus both ends of the cylinder allowed to warm up at 
once. As soon as the engine has reached its speed and 
dry steam comes from the cylinder cocks they can be 
closed and the throttle thrown wide open. The cylinder 
lubricator and other oil cups can now be started, and if 
necessary the boiler pump or injector. 

544. Running the engine. — After the engine is once 
started all bearings should be watched to see that they 
do not heat. When they get so warm that the hand can- 
not be borne on them the engine should be stopped and 
the bearings loosened. If the engine runs properly, all 
repairs that can be made while the engine is in motion 
should be attended to: the oil supply looked after, oil 
cups kept full, etc. 

545. Stopping the engine. — To stop the engine the 
throttle should be closed and the cylinder coeks then 
opened. The throttle may be closed quickly without in- 
jury to the boiler or the cylinder, providing there is 
plenty of water in the boiler. Close all lubricators. The 
cylinder cocks should be left open until after the engine 
starts again. If the engine is stopped for only a short 
interval, the cylinder walls will cool off so little that the 
engine can be quickly started. It is not well, however, to 
start the engine into full speed at once. This throws 
too much strain on the working parts. 

546. Leaks. — Engines should be occasionally tested 
for steam leaks past the valve or the piston. The easiest 
and surest method to do this is to use the indicator, but 
wherever this is not possible the valve can be tested by 
placing it in its central position and turning on steam. 



STEAM ENGINES 39/ 

If there is any leak, condensed steam will flow from the 
cylinder cocks. 

If the valve is tight, leaks past the piston may be found 
by blocking the crosshead so as to hold the piston in 
one place, then turning steam into one end of the cylin- 
der. If water comes from the cylinder cock in the other 
end, steam is leaking past the piston. 

It is well to make this test for both ends of the cylinder 
and with the piston in two or three positions. Sometimes 
the piston rings will allow the steam to pass one way 
and not the other. Often there are irregularities in the 
inside surface of the cylinder, and steam will leak past 
the piston when it is in one part of the stroke and not in 
another. Although a small leak may not appear very 
important, all the steam which leaks past the valve or 
the piston passes off into the exhaust without doing 
work. When the valve leaks it should be taken out and 
scraped to a fit. If the piston leaks, new rings should be 
put in, and if it continues to do so, the cylinder should 
be rebored. 

547. Packing. — There are two classes of packing, pis- 
ton packing and sheet or gasket packing. The former 
is to be used where moving parts are to be packed, such 
as piston and valve rods. It generally consists of some 
sort of wicking, such as candle wicking, asbestos wick- 
ing, hemp wicking, or patent wicking. Candle wicking 
and hemp are good all-purpose packings, but should not 
be left in the packing box too long, as they will become 
hard and cut the rod. Asbestos wicking is good packing 
for all purposes but pump rods. It does not get hard like 
hemp or candle wicking, but the water on a pump rod 
soon washes it out. Patented packings will last longer 
and not get hard like the common packings. Gasket or 
sheet packings are used on pipe fittings, manholes, and 



398 FARM MOTORS 

handholes, where there is no motion. Such packing 
should be just thick enough to cover the uneven surfaces 
and no more. 

548. Pounding. — An engine which pounds is generally 
loose or worn, and if permitted to continue pounding will 
gradually become worse. The wrist and crank bearings 
are those most likely to pound. Nevertheless, there are 
so many other places where the engine will pound that 
it is well to look not only at these points, but at others. 
An experienced engineer will have no trouble in de- 
tecting the exact place, but a new man should work 
cautiously. He should block the crosshead, and then 
turn the flywheel backward and forward an inch or two. 
This will tell whether the pound is in the flywheel, main 
bearings, crank pin or wrist pin. This will not tell, how- 
ever, if the pound is in the governor belt pulley, or 
guides. A new engineer should not try to take out all 
of the pound at once ; only take up the slack a trifle at a 
time until it is all removed. It is better to run a box too 
loose and have it pound than too tight and have it cut. 
An engine may also be loose in the eccentric and valve, 
and cause pounding, or sometimes it will pound when out 
of line. In the former case a little tightening will remove 
the pound ; not too much, however, or the eccentric may 
cut or the valve bind. If the engineer thinks the shaft 
is out of line, he can detect it by taking the front half of 
the crank bearing ofif the connecting rod, and then by in- 
spection see if the connecting rod freely rests in its posi- 
tion in the crank pm in all parts of the stroke of the 
piston. 

549. Bearings. — All important boxes and those which 
are likely to wear should be made in halves with liners 
between the halves. This permits of taking up the wear, 
without requiring a new bearing. The ideal bearing is 



STF.AM RXr.lNES 399 

a perfectly round hole with a pin fitting it just close 
enough to allow a film of oil between the hole and the 
pin. The closer a bearing can be made to conform to 
this the better. 

As a bearing wears, a thick liner should be taken out 
and a thinner one inserted. Never take out a thick liner 
and then only partly draw up the boxes. This makes a 
loose bearing and will cause trouble. 

550. Lubrication. — Since the cylinder of the engine is 
always hot when running, oil is required which will 
stand higher temperatures than the oils for bearings. 
This oil is generally known as cylinder oil. As a rule, 
it is a heavier and blacker oil than is generally used for 
lubrication. It is of such a nature that it will stand the 
heat in the steam chest and the cylinder. Ordinary lubri- 
cating oil would be decomposed by the heat. The oil 
used for bearings, such as crank, eccentric, wrist pin, etc., 
is of a lighter nature and is a good grade of common 
lubricating oil. A new engine requires more oil than an 
old one, and a c)dinder when priming or foaming requires 
more oil than v/hen running regularly. The amount of 
oil to use can be determined only by experience ; it is 
better to get too much than not enough. A good method 
of determining the amount of oil for the cylinder is to 
keep track for a minute of the number of drops which 
pass through the lubricator ; then take the cylinder head 
off and see if the walls are bright and shiny and feel 
oily ; if so, the cylinder is getting enough oil. For bear- 
ings and other places, the number of drops a minute 
should be determined, and then the bearings watched 
to see if they heat and if there is an excess of oil run- 
ning off. 

551. Lubricators. — Owing to the pressure in the steam 
chest of an engine, some device has to be employed which 



400 



FARM MOTORS 



will force the oil into the steam pipe against this pres- 
sure. I'here are several makes of lubricators on the 
market. Fig. 279 shows the principle of nearly all of 
them. This lubricator is so arranged that the steam 
condenses in the small pipe of the lubricator and forms 
a greater pressure on one side of the oil than on the 
other. This forces the oil from the valve to the steam 

pipe. To fill the lubri- 
cator, the cocks from 
the steam pipe should be 
shut ofif so no pressure 
can be let in ; then the 
small cock at the bottom 
of the lubricator should 
be opened and the con- 
densed water let out. 
When oil commences to 
come instead of water 
the lubricator has been 
drained enough. The cock can then be closed and the 
cap on top taken ofif and the oil poured in. Several 
makes of oil pumps now on the market are to take the 
place of the lubricator. They are actuated by a lever 
and arm from the crosshead. These pumps are more 
positive than lubricators in their action and not as likely 
to fail to operate. The only defect in this form of lubri- 
cation is that very few pumps have a sight feed or a 
glass which will tell how much oil is in the vessel that 
contains it ; thus it is hard to tell whether the pump is 
full or empty. 




FIG. 279 CYLINDER LUBRICATOR 



CHAPTER XX 
GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 

552. Internal-combustion engine. — The f^asoline en- 
gine is of the type known as the internal-combustion 
engine. Others of this type are the gas engine, the 
hydrocarbon engine, the kerosene engine, the oil engine, 
and the distillate engine. 

In the steam engine combustion takes place in the 
furnace ; the heat is diffused through the boiler, gener- 
ating steam ; this steam is then transferred by means of 
pipes to the engine. Through all these operations a 
great deal of heat energy is lost by radiation. In the 
internal-combustion engine the fuel is j)ut under high 
pressure by the inward movement of the piston. While 
in this condition it is ignited ; the consequent burning 
causes a very great expansive force, and this force, act- 
ing directly upon the moving parts of the engine, gives 
very little op|)ortunity for radiation. 

The principle of all internal-combustion engines is the 
same, so in this chapter the gasoline engine will be used 
as a basis of discussion. The gas and the gasoline en- 
gine are so nearly identical that they may be treated in 
the same manner. 

553. Early development. — At first the development of this en- 
gine was very slow. Huyghens in 1680 proposed the use of gun- 
powder. Papin in i6go continued the experiments, but without suc- 
cess. Their plan was to explode the powder in an enclosed vessel, 
forcing the air out through check valves, thus producing a partial 
vacuum, causing the piston to descend by atmospheric pressure and 



402 



FARM MOTORS 



gravity. The few experimenters who took up the work continued in 
this line with mote or less improvements until i860, when Lenoir 
brought out the first really practical engine. This was very similar 
to a high-pressure steam engine using gas and air. Among these 
early experimenters, those who seem most prominent are Barnet, in 
1838, inventor of flame ignition and compression, and Barsanti and 
Matteusee, who. in 1857, produced the free piston. 

554. Later development.— Million gave the first clear ideas of 
the advantages of compression, and M. Beau de Rochas went further 
and produced a theory analogous to our present type. In 1867 Messrs. 
Otto and Langdon produced a free piston engine which superseded 
all previous efforts, but it was left to Mr. Otto to put into practice 




FIG. 280 — PARTS OF GASOLINE ENGINE 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 



403 



in 1876 the first engine of commercial value. All present-day types 
work on the same principle as Otto's, but under fewer practical 
difficulties. 

555. Types of gasoline engines. — Otto was the first to 
put into practice the idea of compressing the gas and air 
mixture before igniting. This gave rise to the naine of 
Otto cycle, which is now used in all engines. Com- 
pression is one of the important things which determine 
the economy of the engine ; theoretically, the efficiency 
of the engine depends upon the compression pressure. 
However, it is not possible to increase the compression 
pressure indefinitely because the charge pre-ignites and 
causes the engine to pound. It is desirable, however, to 
use as high a compression as possible. 

As stated before, practically all the engines used to- 
day are designed to follow the Otto cycle. However, 
they are divided into two distinct types, four-cycle en- 
gines and two-cycle engines. 

556. Four-cycle engines. — The term cycle is applied to 
the entire operation of converting heat into mechanical 
energy. In the four-cycle engine four strokes of the piston 




FIG. 281 — SUCTION STROKE OF FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE 



404 



FARM MOTORS 



I 




FIG. 282 — COMPRESSION AND IGNITION STROKE OF FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE 

or two complete revolutions of the crank are necessary 
to complete this cycle, hence the name four-cycle. These 
strokes may be enumerated as follows : The piston makes 
one forward stroke, drawing into the cylinder through 
the inlet a charge of fuel and air. This is called suction 
(Fig. 281). A second stroke compresses this charge 




FIG. 283 — EXPANSION AND RELEASE STROKE OF FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL LNCINES 



405 




FIG. 284 — EXHAUST STROKE OF FOUR-CYCLE ENGINE 

into the clearance space of the cylinder (Fig. 282). This 
stroke is called compression. Just before the crank 
passes dead center the charge is ignited. Owing to the 
heat released, the gases expand, and -this expansion of 
gases acts upon the piston, driving it forward during the 
third stroke, which is called expansion (Fig. 283). This 
stroke is the only working stroke of the cycle. During 
the fourth stroke the exhaust valve is forced open by 
mechanical means and the piston crowds the burned 
gases out. This stroke is called exhaust (Fig. 284). 

557. The two-cycle engine completes the cycle in two 
strokes of the piston and from this fact derives its name. 
In this type of engine there must be, besides the cylinder, 
a compression chamber, which may be separate, which 
may be the crank case enclosed, or which may be the front 
end of the cylinder. To illustrate the cycle in this type 
of engine, the enclosed crank case type is used. That is, 
the cylinder and the crank case are both gas tight and 
practically in one piece. However, the two chambers are 
separated by the piston. Let the piston be at the crank 



4o6 



FARM MOTORS 



end of the cylinder, then start it up. This action tends 
to produce a vacuum in the crank case, but instead of 
doing so the charge rushes in through the check valve A 
(Fig. 285) and fills the space. Now start the piston 
down again, compressing the charge in the crank case 
(Fig. 286) until the piston has opened the inlet port, 
when the charge rushes from that end of the cylinder up 





FIG. 285 



FIG. 286 



into the other. As the piston starts back again (Fig. 287) 
it closes the openings and compresses the charge now in 
the head end. At the same time it is doing this a new 
charge is being drawn into the crank case. When the 
piston reaches the upper end of the stroke explosion takes 
place and the expansion forces the piston down (Fig. 288), 
compressing the charge in the crank case and expanding 
the one in the cylinder. When the piston has passed the 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINKS 



407 



port openings tlie burnt gas rushes out through the ex- 
haust port and the new charge comes in through the in- 
let port. Thus we see that when the piston is compress- 
ing a charge in the cylinder a new charge is being taken 
into the crank case, and when the charge in the cylinder 
is expanding the gas in the crank case is being com- 
pressed. 




FIG. 287 — SUCTION, COMPRESSION 
AND IGNITION STROKE OF TWO- 
CYCLE ENGINE 




FIG. 288 — EXPANSION, EXHAUST 
AND INLET STROKE OF TWO- 
CYCLE ENGINE 



558. Construction. — (Only the four-cycle engine will 
be considered hereafter.) The parts of a gasoline engine 
necessary to be examined for proper construction are : 
cylinder head, cylinder, base, piston, and piston rings, 
connecting rod, crank shaft, flywheels, valves, governor, 
carburetor, ignitor, and cooling device. 



4o8 



FARM MOTORS 



Cylinder head. — The cylin- 
der head (Fig. 289) should 
have a device for cooling. If 
water is used for this, the in- 
side of the head should be at 
least }i inch thick for a 5- 
inch cylinder and the water 
jacket not less than ].4 inch. 
These dimensions increase 
with the size of the engine. 
Cylinder. — The cylinder 
(Fig. 290) should be bored 
perfectly smooth and round, 
and should be free from all flaws and imperfections. It 
may have the same thickness of castings as the head. 

Base. — The base (Fig. 291) should be designed to carry 
the cylinder, engine frame, and flywheels in a well-bal- 
anced condition. 




FIG. 289 — CYLINDER HEAD 




FIG. 290 — CYLINDER 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 



409 



Piston. — The piston (Fig. 292) is one of the important 
parts of the engine. It should be of good length to carry 
itself without binding. The piston pin should be near 
the middle and as long and as large as possible. In 




FIG. 291 — BASE 

small engines the piston should be about 1/200 of an inch 
smaller than the cylinder, and in larger sizes it should 
be about 1/32 of an inch smaller. The space on the head 
end of the piston beyond the last ring should be about 
1/16 of an inch less in diameter than the rest of the 
piston. 

Piston rings. — The number of rings (Fig. 292) varies 
from three in cylinders of 5-inch diameter and less up 
to eight in 20-inch cylinders. If the engine is of the 





FIG. 292 — PISTON AND RINGS 



vertical type, there should be a ring at the lower end of 
the piston. This ring will prevent "oil pumping." The 
rings should break joints, and if one edge fits closer to 
the cylinder than the other, the close-fitting edge should 



4IO 



FARM MOTORS 



be toward the explosion end. All rings should be cres- 
cent-shaped. This causes an equal pressure all around. 
The connecting rod. — The connecting rod (Fig. 293) 




FIG. 293 — CONNECTING ROD 

should be of forged steel and of the right weight to carry 
the load. A simple bearing is sufficient at the wrist pin, 
but at the crank end the boxings should be held in place 
by means of two bolts. All parts should be in perfect 
alignment. 

Crank shaft (Fig. 294). — It is essential that the crank 
shaft be heavy enough to withstand the sudden shocks 
which come to it from the explosions, and it should also 
carry the heavy Hywheels without springing. The bear- 
ings should be long and in perfect alignment. Their line 
of centers must be exactly at right angles with the cylin- 
der. A good way to detect a weak crank shaft is to 
notice whether the flywheels wobble at each explosion 
of the engine. 

Flyzvhecls (Fig. 295). — These are necessarily heavy 
and massive, but not necessarily ungainly in appear- 
ance. Loganecker says: 
"At a medium speed, 
which may be based on 
about 225 revolutions for 
25 H.P. to 375 for 2 H.P., 
100 pounds to the horse 
power will not be very far 
FIG. 294-cRANK SHAFT o"t of the way. The di- 




GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 4II 

ameter may range from 2H inches on the small engine .to 
60 inches on the larger size." The al)ove weight is to be 
divided between the two wheels. 





FIG. 295 — FLYWHEELS 

Valves (Fig. 296). — It makes no great ditTerence where 
the valves are located, just so they are close to and con- 
nected to the clearance space. A good rule to follow for 
size is: Inlet valve diameter should be five-sixteenths 
diameter of the cylinder, and the exhaust valve about 
seven-sixteenths. 

559, Governors. — There are two types of gasoline en- 
gine governors in general use. These are the throttling 
governor and the hit-or-miss governor. 

Throttling governors vary the amount of gasoline mix- 
ture admitted to the cylinder. Before the engine has 
reached its normal speed, or when it is carrying a full 
load, each charge is a full charge, with as near a perfect 
mixture as possible. Consequently the normal compres- 
sion pressure for that engine is attained and the engine 
does its work with its greatest economy. When the en- 
gine is doing only a part of its rated capacity of work, 
the throttle acts. This reduces the volume of mixture 
which enters the cylinder, but the space within the cylin- 



412 



FARM MOTORS 



FIG. 296 — VALVES 



der to be filled is the same ; 
consequently the compres- 
sion pressure is not as great 
as it should be and the en- 
gine is not economical with 
fuel. Often the load in an 
engine is small enough for 
the charge to be throttled 
down until of such small 
volume as not to ignite, but 
simply pass off to the ex- 
haust unburned. Throttling- 
governor gasoline engines are not as economical with a 
variable load as the hit-or-miss type of governed engines. 
However, their motion is much more steady, and often 
the matter of economy is waived in order to secure the 
greater uniformity of speed. 

Hit-or-miss type of governor. — In the hit-or-miss type 
of governor the amount of mixture drawn in for an ex- 
plosion remains at all times a constant, and the govern- 
ing is accomplished by cutting out all admissions while 
the engine is running faster than normal speed. This 
method of governing is usually accomplished by holding 
the exhaust valve open and the inlet valve closed until 
the engine falls a trifle below speed, when the exhaust 
valve closes and new charges are taken into the cylinder. 
Fig. 297 shows the manner in which this style of govern- 
ing is accomplished. When the speed of the engine is 
above normal the governor sleeve C, which is in the 
crank shaft, is drawn out, and, acting on the detent roller 
D, throws the detent lever E down so it becomes en- 
gaged in the hook-up stop F. The hook-up stop F, being 
connected to the exhaust valve rod H, holds the exhaust 
valve open. By reference to Fig. 298 it will be seen how 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 



413 



the inlet valve is held closed. There are three general 
methods of using weights to accomplish hit-or-miss gov- 




FIG. 297 — MECHANISM KOK HIT-OK-MISS GOVERNOR 

erning as explained above. They are : By having weights 
in the flywheels (Fig. 299") ; by having weights in a spe- 
cial shaft (Fig. 300) ; and by means of an inertia weight 





FIG. 298 — INLET V.XLVE LOCK 



FIG. 299 — FLYWHEEL GOVERNOR 



414 



FARM MOTORS 




FIG. 300 — BALL t-OVEKNOR 

(Fig. 301). The latter type of governor works on the 
principle that when the engine is running at normal 
speed the weight does not get enough throw to cause 
the detent to catch in the hook-up stop, but when the 
speed is increased above normal the weight is thrown 
far enough to accomplish this. 

560. Carburetor. — Before gasoline can be used in an 
engine for fuel it must be converted into a vapor or into 
a gas. This process of converting the liquid into a gas 
is called carburetion, and the device by which it is 
accomplished is called the carburetor. It is by means of 
the carburetor that a proper mixture of gasoline and air 
is made for combustion in the cylinder. A proper mix- 
ture is one of the important functions of successful gaso- 
line engine operation. 



1 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 



415 




FIG. 301 — PENDULUM GOVERNOR 

When the Hquid gasoline is converted into a vapor its 
volume is increased about 1,500 times. To make a strong 
explosive mixture the vapor must be diluted from 8 to 
13 times the volume of the air; the air in this case suj)])!}- 
ing the oxygen. Thus we see that the volume of gasoline to 

the volume of air used is in the 
proportion of about i to 12.000 
or to 19,500. It follows that the 
carburetor must necessarily be a 
very delicate arrangement. .\n 
engine will not run satisfactorily 
unless the mixture is very nearly 
correct. There is a multitude 
of surface, wick, gauze, spray, 
atomizing and float-feed car- 

FIG. 302 — PRINCIPLE OF THE , , , 

CARBURETOR burctors and generator valves on 




4i6 



FARM MOTORS 



the market. Practically all of these devices depend upon the 
liquid fuel being caught by the incoming air and atomized on 
its way to the cylinder. Fig. 302 illustrates the principle of 
the carburetor. Gasoline fiows into the chamber A ; air 
enters at B and passes through the chamber C into the en- 
gine cylinders. As the air passes the tube D it takes up the 
charge of gasoline which has been admitted through the nee- 
dle valve E, and carries it on into the engine with itself. 
Since the air passes the tube D at a velocity of about 6,000 
feet a minute, it immediately atomizes the gasoline and forms 
it into a gas. Fig. 303 is a commercial carburetor wherein 

the gasoline is kept at a 
constant level in the reser- 
voir. Fig. 304 shows a 
float- feed carburetor, the 
principle of which is illus- 
trated in Fig. 305. As fast 
as gasoline is taken from 
the tube A the float B 
drops and more gasoline 
enters the reservoir C. 

The charge of gasoline 
taken into the engine each 
time is so small that the 
amount can be regulated 
only by a needle valve. 
Such valves as are used 
about the pimip are far 

FIG. 303-CONSTANT-LEVEL CARBURETOR ^^^ ^^^^^ j^ j^ ^j^^ ^^^^ 

to this minuteness of the charge that the gasoline has to be 
kept at a constant level in the reservoir of the carburetors. 
For instance, if the carburetor illustrated in Fig. 303 has no 
overflow, but the attendant endeavors to regulate the amount 
of gasoline in the reservoir by means of the valve in 




GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 

the feed pipe, he will set his 
valve so that the engine 
runs well under a full load, 
but when the load becomes 
less fewer charges will be 
drawn in and the pump will 
throw the same amount of 
gasoline. Consequently the 
reservoir will fill so full 
that when the engine does fig. 304— float feed carbx;retor 
take a charge there will be so much gasoline in it 
that there will not be complete combustion, and as a 
result the explosion will be weak and the exhaust gas 
Mj'iU be black smoke. The carburetor should be near the 
cylinder to enable the mixture to be easily controlled. 
561. Igniters. — There are two general types of ignitors. 








FIG. 305 — PRINCIPLE OF THE FLOAT-FEED CARBURETOR 



4i8 



FARM MOTORS 



the hot tube and the electric spark. The latter type, which 
is most popular in America at present, may be divided 
into two classes, the contact spark and the jump spark. 
Contact spark (Fig. 306). — It has been noticed that 
when a break is made in an electric circuit a spark takes 
place, and it is upon this principle that the contact gaso- 
line ignitor depends. The charges of the fuel mixture 




FIG. 306 — CONTACT-SPARK IGNITOR 



FIG. 307 — JUMP-SPARK IGNITOR 




FIG. 308 — WIRING SYSTEM FOR JUMP- 
SPARK IGNITION 



are ignited by causing 
this break to be made 
inside of the cylinder. 
The quicker this break 
is made, the more pro- 
nounced the'Spark. The 
spark is always made 
larger and more pro- 
nounced by including in 
the circuit a spark coil. 
Jump spark. — The 
jump-spark ignitor 
(Fig. 307) has within 
the cylinder two points 
insulated from each 
other and separated by 



GAS, OIL ANn ALCOHOL EXGINES 



419 



a very short distance. It dififers from the contact-spark 
circuit in that there must be an induction coil. This 
coil requires a primary current leading to it from the 
batteries, and a secondary current leading to the spark 
points. This latter current has the characteristic of 
jumping from one point to the other in the form of a 
spark, thus igniting the charge in the engine (Fig. 308). 
562. Batteries. — In the majority of cases the currents 
for electric ignitors are furnished by batteries composed 
of either dry or wet cells. It is very difficult to determine 
without the aid of proper instruments when a battery 
has been exhausted to the point where it does not fur- 
nish sufficient current. Upon trying an exhausted bat- 
tery out, it will in all cases give a satisfactor}^ spark. 
This is due to the fact that batteries when exhausted tend 
to recover slightl}' during the rest and are able to furnish 
current for a few ignitions. Upon starting an engine with 
an exhausted battery, a 
few ignitions will take 
place satisfactorily, but 
later it will miss fire, 
due to the weakness of 
the battery. Often 
when a battery is be- 
coming run down and 
the engine is still run- 
ning the latter will take 
in several charges, but 
no explosion will re- 
sult ; then there is an 
explosion and a great report from the exhaust. This is 
because the explosion in the engine ignites the unex- 
ploded charges which have previously passed through 
into the exhaust chaiuber. 




FIG. 309 — WIRING SYSTEM FOR BATTERIES 
AND DYNAMOS 



420 FARM MOTORS 

563. Dynamos and magnetos. — Since the battery is ex- 
pensive and short lived, other provisions are made for 
supplying electric currents. One of the most satisfactory 
of these is by connecting- the engine to a form of magneto 
or dynamo. The amount of power needed to drive a 
dynamo is exceedingly small, but at all times sufficient 
current is provided to give reliable ignition. A magneto 
differs from a dynamo in that the pole pieces of the mag- 
netos are made of permanent magnets, while those of the 
dynamo are electromagnets. 

It is often easier to start an engine with a magneto 
than with a dynamo. However, after speed is reached, 
the dynamo, as a rule, is a little more satisfactory than 
the magneto. These small dynamos are usually provided 
with a self-governing" device which will regulate the 
speed and in this way obtain the proper voltage for 
ignition. 

564, Cooling of gasoline engines. — There are three 
methods of carrying the excess heat away from the gaso- 
line engine cylinder, namely: (i) air cooled; (2) water 
cooled ; and (3) oil cooled. 

The air-cooled engine (Fig. 310) is provided with ribs 
or flanges extending from the cylinder, which gives up a 
certain amount of heat to the air. This may be assisted 
by a draft of air blown upon the cylinder by a fan, bring- 
ing more air in contact with the flanges. Air-cooled en- 
gines are necessarily of small units, but where the engine 
is small and exposed to freezing weather it is preferable 
to any other. 

Water-cooled engines are the type in most general use, 
and water is perhaps the best means of carrying the ex- 
cess heat from the cylinder. There are three general 
plans in use for cooling with water. One is to have a 
large tank sitting near and connected to the engine (Fig. 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 



421 




no. 310 — AIR-COOLED ENGLNE 



422 



FARM MOTORS 



315). One connection should be from the lowest part of 
the water jacket to the lower part of the tank ; the other 
should be from the upper part of the water jacket to the 
top of the tank. The heat from the engine causes circula- 




FIG. 311 — CIRCULATING PUMP SYSTEM OF COOLING 

tion similar to that in a boiler. Another plan (Fig. 311) 
is to provide some way for the water to fall through the 
air and thus cool itself by evaporation. In this plan a cir- 
culating pump is necessary. The third method is to 
allow a stream of water to run continually through the 
engine. The first way is the most economical and possi- 
bly the most satisfactory where there is plenty of room 
and no danger of frost. The second method is coming 
into general use because it takes less space and does not 
require so much water at once. All late portable engines 
are equipped with this device for cooling. For stationary 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 



423 



engines and where the amount of water used may be un- 
limited, the constant-flow method is considered the best, 
since by this means the water can be 'drained from the 
jacket every time the engine is shut down, and turned in 
again upon starting, and thus avoid the danger of 
freezing. 

Open-jacket cooling. — Engines are now coming upon the 
market which have the open-jacket method of cooHng. 
The casting for the water jacket is extended so it forms 
a reservoir upon the top of the engine (Fig. 31 10). This 
reservoir is open at the top and holds but a few gallons 
of water. As the engine heats, the water is allowed to 
boil and evaporate. Since there is only a pailful or so of 

water in the engine, it is 
but a small matter to drain 
the engine and then refill 
in cold weather. 

Oil cooling system. — By 
having a radiator and cir- 
culating pump, oil is used 
for cooling where engines 
are exposed to freezing 
temperature. 

Often chemicals are used 
in water to prevent freez- 
ing. Calcium chloride is 
the most common of these. 
The proportions generally 
used are 5 pounds of the 
chemical to 10 gallons of 
water. Whenever possible, 
the use of chemicals should 
be avoided; they attack 
either the tank or the engine castings. 




FIG. 3IIA— OPEN-JACKET SYSTEM 
OF COOLING 



424 FARM MOTORS 

565. Gasoline engine indicator diagram. — The highest pressure 
obtained in the average steam engine cylinder rarely exceeds 175 
pounds to the square inch. In gasoline engines the average maxi- 
mum pressure is about 300 pounds a square inch, and it often ex- 
ceeds 400 pounds a square inch. Since the pressures are so high 
in the gasoline engine, either the spring has to be made stiiifer in 
the indicator or else the piston made smaller. Either method is 
utilized with success in indicator work. All parts of the gasoline 
engine indicator, excepting the spring, are tlie same as those of the 
steam engine indicator. In the steam engine the working fluid is 
admitted to the cylinder ready to perform its work on the piston. 
In the gasoline engine this is not the case. The working fluid enters 
the cylinder in the form of a gasoline fuel, which has to be com- 
pressed and burned before it is ready for use. Since these opera- 
tions take place in the engine cylinder, the gasoline engine indicator 
diagram is different from that of the steam engine. Fig. 312 is a 
typical gasoline engine indicator diagram and can be followed out 
thus: XY is the atmospheric line; ABC is the line produced by the 
suction stroke of the piston ; CDE is the compression line ; E is the 
point of ignition ; EFG is the line produced by the increase in pres- 
sure as the gas burns ; GHI is the expansion stroke line ; / is the 
point of release; IC is the exhaust line and CJA is the exhaust 
stroke line. If the inlet valve is opened automatically the suction 
stroke line falls far below atmospheric pressure, but if it is opened 
mechanically the line ABC will fall only a short distance below the 
line A'}'. The indicator diagram shows as clearly what is the mat- 
ter with a gasoline engine as it does with a steam engine. Fig. 
313 shows cards from engines where ignition is too late; Fig. 314, 
cards which indicate too early ignition. 

566. Losses in a gasoline engine. — If it were possible 
to utilize all the heat in the ftiel in a charge of gasoline, 
there would be no more economical method of producing 
power, but the mechanical difficulties which have to be 
overcome are so great that only about 25 per cent of the 
fuel is converted into applicable work. The principal 
losses of a gasoline engine are : radiation of heat, heat 
passed off in the exhaust gases, and heat lost by leakages. 
At the instant explosion takes place in the engine cylinder 
the temperature at the center of this explosion is esti- 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 



425 



mated to be about 3,000° F. Since cast iron melts at 
about 2.300°, a great deal of the heat of the explosion 
must be immediately carried off by radiation through the 
walls of the cylinder. In order to utilize all the heat left 
in the gases after the loss by radiation is deducted, the 

cylinder would have to be so 
long that the gases could 
expand to atmospheric pres- 
sure. This is a mechanical 
impossibility. And it has 
been decided that the most 
practical length of cylinder is 
such that the stroke of the 
piston is about twice as long 
as the diameter of the engine cylinder. Under these con- 
ditions the pressure at release is generally about 40 pounds, 
and the exhaust gases are still hot enough so that they pro- 
duce a dull red flame. These two losses are the greatest ; 
and the third loss, that is, the loss past the piston rings, is 
due to the fact that it is impossible to have a joint be- 
tween moving parts perfectly tight. 





FIG. 313 — TOO LATE IGNITION 



FIG. 314 — TOO EARLY IGNITION 



426 



FARM MOTORS 



1 



567. Indicated horse power. — The formula for indicated horse 
power in the gasoline engine is : 

PLAN 



H. P. 



33,000 



where 



P = mean effective pressure, 

L =: length of stroke in feet, 

A = area of piston in square inches, 

N ^= number of explosions a minute. 

It will be seen that this formula is the same as that for steam 
engines, excepting that N represents the number of single explosions 
a minute in the gasoline engine formula, instead of the number of 
revolutions a minute, with two impulses for each revolution, as in 
the steam engine. 

568. Testing. — To make a complete test of a gasoline 
engine requires a great deal of expensive apparatus. Not 
only is this apparatus needed, but the one doing the test- 
ing must have a very good knowledge of science as far 
as it pertains to heat and engines. However, a very sim- 
ple apparatus can be arranged so that any farmer, if he 
cares to take the trouble, can make a test which will cover 
all matters as far as he is concerned. The formula for 
B.H.P. is the same as that given in Chapter I. for 
steam engines, and the same brake can be used. A speed 
indicator can be procured for a dollar, and a set of scales 
or spring balances can be easily secured. It will require 
two men, who must work simultaneously. Before start- 
ing to make the test it will be well to draw up a form 
about as follows : 



Test 


I 


2 


3 


Name of engine 








Rated horse "power 








Weight of brake on scales, engine still 








Weight on scales, engine loaded 








Net brake load ( G ) 








Length of brake arm in feet (// ) 








Revolutions per minute (N) 








Horse power from test 

















GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 427 

Before the eng^ine is started, weigh the brake on the 
scales with the friction part on wheels ready for the test. 
Measure the distance from the center of the wheel to the 
point where the brake rests on the scale. In a rope brake 
the brake arm is the radius of the wheel plus half the 
thickness of the rope. 

W^hen everything is ready start the engine and gradu- 
ally draw up the brake. A gasoline engine is running 
at full load wdien it misses only one explosion out of 
about every eight. Tighten the brake until this point is 
reached, then run the weight out on the scale beam until 
the point is reached where it balances. Now let one man 
keep the scales balanced by tightening and loosening the 
brake ; at the same time let the other man take the speed 
of the engine for one minute. This is all the data needed 
to determine the brake horse power. It is well, however, 
to keep the brake on with engine running at full load for 
at least 15 minutes to determine whether the engine will 
carry the load. 

569. Care of gasoline engines. — In the care of the en- 
gine there are three points of equal importance, namely : 
cleanliness, water, and oil. To secure the first a well- 
lighted room is required, one in which the engine alone 
is placed. Damp, dark cellars should be avoided. As to 
water and oil, the consideration given depends entirely 
upon the man m charge. If the engine room is light, the 
floor clean, waste in a can, tools in a case, and engine 
bright and clean, it is a certainty that its bearings do 
not cut for the want of oil, nor its water jacket run dry 
or freeze up. 

A person who does not understand the engine should 
refrain from tampering with it as long as it runs well. 
During this time he should be observing and notice the 
workings of all parts so that in case the engine is not 
working satisfactorily he can readjust it. 



428 FARM MOTORS 

570. Lubrication. — Lubrication of the gas engine cylin- 
der is very important. A special oil must be used 
to stand the high temperature met with in gas-engine 
practice. Any oil containing animal fat will not work at 
all because when subjected to high temperature it will 
decompose and be reduced to a charred mass. First-class 
steam engine cylinder oil will not give good results be- 
cause it contains certain elements which will carburet 
like gasoline under high pressure and high temperature. 
Good engine oil is satisfactory for other parts. 

571. Gasoline engine troubles. — The gasoline engine is 
often condemned as being unreliable. This may be ex- 
plained from the fact that unless conditions are just right 
the gasoline engine will stop or refuse to work at all. 
This is different in other forms of motors because very 
often the thing which interferes with its operation comes 
on gradually and may not be noticed by the man in 
charge. It has been stated that "there are four things 
essential to the operation of a gasoline engine," namely : 
compression, ignition, carburetion or proper mixture, and 
proper valve action. If these four conditions are ob- 
tained, the engine will work or run. If there is failure 
to obtain any one of them, the engine will refuse to run. 
Often an engine will stop, and it is difficult to tell which 
one of the various conditions is wrong. It is necessary 
to trace the trouble and correct it. 

572. Compression. — It is easy to detect whether or not 
there is compression by turning the engine over ; if a 
charge of air is caught and compressed; this is an easy 
matter to determine. Failure to get compression may be 
due to a valve refusing to seat or to a leak past the valve. 
It may also be due to a leak past the piston, to broken 
piston rings, poorly seated rings, or rings gummed with 
oil. If valves do not seat correctly, it may be due to 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 429 

some gum or scale under one side of the valve. If they 
leak, it may be due to the fact that the valve seat has 
become worn owing to excessive heat, in which case they 
must be reground. If there are broken rings, they must 
be replaced with new. If poorly seated, new rings must 
be fitted to the cylinder. If they are gummed up so they 
will not spring out against the cylinder walls, they may 
be oiled and loosened with kerosene. 

573. Ignition, — The majority of the gasoline engine 
troubles may be laid to the ignitor. As stated before, it 
is often very difficult to pick out the trouble with the 
ignitor in the case of a battery which has been exhausted. 

If for any reason the operator thinks the spark fails 
to pass on the inside of the cylinder, the wire on the in- 
sulated terminal should be disconnected and snapped on 
some bright part of the engine. If there is a spark, it 
proves that as far as the battery is concerned everything 
is satisfactory. If there is none, the wire should be thor- 
oughly gone over, the trouble located, and a spark ob- 
tained. Perhaps it will be found that a binding screw is 
loose, or the circuit has been broken at some other point. 
If the operator gets a spark in the above manner, and 
then snaps the wire across the insulated binding post, 
obtaining a spark, there is a connection between the 
points within the engine, and the ignitor must be re- 
moved and cleaned. If by making this test there is no 
spark, it indicates that there is no circuit between the 
ignitor points, and the operator should now hold the 
points together within the engine, by means of the ignitor 
dog, and snap the wire across the insulated terminal. 
This time a spark should be obtained, but if not, it indi- 
cates that there is insulation between the points, which 
must be cleaned after the ignitor is removed. Water and 
carbon will make a circuit between the points, while oil 



430 FARM MOTORS 

and rust will prevent contact. Any of the above sub- 
stances between the ignitor points will prevent a spark. 
The point of ignition varies with the speed of the engine. 
On a slow-speed engine, one of about 225 revolutions a 
minute, ignition should take place when the crank is 10° 
or 15° before center. This angle increases as the speed 
of the engine increases until in an engine running about 
700 revolutions a minute the angle is from 35° to 40°. 

To locate ignition troubles is merely a matter of dis- 
connecting certain parts of the circuit and locating the 
trouble by elimination. 

574. Carburetion. — If for any reason the carburetor re- 
fuses to give a proper mixture, the engine will refuse to 
run. In this case it is necessary for the operator to 
assure himself that everything else is correct, then clean 
out the cylinder by turning the engine over several times 
and beginning as if he were starting the engine for the 
first time. A too rich mixture is detected by black smoke 
appearing at the exhaust. A too poor mixture is deter- 
mined by a snapping sound from the exhaust, indicating 
that the mixture is slow-burning and is still burning when 
the exhaust valve opens. The gas engineer determines 
whether or not his engine is running properly largely 
from the sound of the exhaust. 

575. Action of valves. — The valves now used on the 
gasoline engine are all of the poppet type and give a quick 
opening. An engine will not run if the valves are 
not properly timed. The inlet valve is operated by 
suction ; however, a little greater efificiency is obtained by 
having this valve open mechanically, as there is less op- 
portunity for the charge to be throttled during admission. 
The exhaust valve is always opened mechanically, and 
should open about 45° before the beginning of the ex- 
haust stroke, closing at the end of the stroke. 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 



431 



576. Exhaust. — One of the greatest annoyances con- 
nected with a gasohne engine is the noise from the ex- 




S $'5 



T 



S!: 






•^^Zf7/^yA rail ynicy 



H 







haust. All manufacturers send out mufflers or exhaust 
pots. The latter will not muffle the exhaust appreciably, 



432 FARM MOTORS 

and the former when muffling effectively generally cause 
back pressure and consequently loss of power. The most 
satisfactory method of reducing this noise is to pipe the 
exhaust into a pit, old well, or smoke stack. The top of 
the pit or well should be closed, with the exception of 
three or four openings the size of the exhaust pipe. 

577. Setting. — To insure a smooth-running gasoline 
engine, the setting is a very important point. Fastening 
to the ground by means of stakes and skids or to a floor 
by means of lag screws are makeshift methods. A ma- 
sonry foundation with well-set anchor bolts is by all 
means advisable. Well-laid concrete is the best and gen- 
erally the cheapest. The foundation at the bottom should 
be about twice the length of the base of the engine and 
a little more than twice the width. For an engine of 5 
to 12 horse power it should be from 3 to 4 feet deep, and 
for larger sized engines from 5 to 6. The sides should 
be battered until they are about 8 inches wider at the 
top than the engine. The jar is to a certain extent broken 
by having heavy planking between the masonry and the 
engine. To set and hold the anchor bolts in position, a 
templet should be made which contains holes correspond- 
ing exactly to those in the engine bed. The templet 
should be made strong and firm. The bolts need a heavy 
washer or plate at the lower end and should be passed 
up through a pipe which has an inside diameter of not 
less than i inch. This gives a chance for variation in 
setting. 

578. Advantages of the gasoline engine as a farm 
motor. — The gasoline engine has many advantages over 
the steam engine. In the first place, the farmer as a rule 
uses power for short intervals. The gasoline engine is 
always ready to start, and when the run is over there is 
no fuel in the fire box to be wasted. It does not require 



GAS, OIL AND ALCOHOL ENGINES 433 

an hour's time to g;et up steam. Not only is there a waste 
of fire in the fire box, but the steam boiler when under 
steam contains a large amount of energy, and on cooling 
down this must all be wasted. 

In regard to the matter of safety the gasoline engine 
has the advantage again. There is practically no danger 
from explosion with it, for, as was stated, there is not a 
large amount of energy stored up which may be suddenly 
released to cause an explosion. Usually the supply tank 
is placed outside the building, buried in the ground, so the 
danger from fire is reduced to a minimum. Steam boilers 
must have an attendant, lest the water get too low and 
burn the crown sheet, or become too high so water is car- 
ried over into the cylinder and knock the cylinder head 
out. The fire has to be fed continually and the grates 
cleaned, so that an attendant is needed practically all the 
time. Such close attention is not needed with gasoline 
engines. 

The gasoline engine is as portable as the steam engine. 
As to furnishing its own traction, there are several gaso- 
line traction engines on the market, and there is no rea- 
son why with the addition of clutches and variable-speed 
devices the gasoline engine cannot be made as reliable an 
engine as the steam traction engine. In proof of the 
fact that it may be made to furnish its own tractive power 
it is only necessary to refer to the automobile, which is 
made to work under great variance of speed. 

In regard to the cost of power from gasoline and coal, 
each has advantages under certain conditions. The aver- 
age consumption of gasoline per horse power per hour 
should be about i/6 or 1/7 gallon, with a minimum of 
i/io gallon. The coal consumed per brake horse power 
per hour is about 8 pounds, with a minimum near 4 
pounds as burned under boilers to furnish steam for farm 



434 FARM MOTORS 

engines. It is possible to figure just what the running 
expense will be if the cost of the two different kinds of 
fuel be at hand. Under ordinary conditions and for very 
small units the gasoline engine will without question be 
the cheapest. In dairy work, steam direct from the boiler 
or from the exhaust is used to heat water for washing 
purposes, and this is a great advantage for the steam 
plant. However, the jacket water heated with the ex- 
haust of a gasoline engine might be used in the same 
way. 

The steam engine as built for farm use is capable, at 
the expense of economy, of carrying a very heavy over- 
load. This is extremel}' advantageous in traction engines 
in case of emergencies. A 25-horse steam traction engine 
is often able to develop 60 brake horse power. Gasoline 
engines are rated very nearly their maximum power, and 
are not able to carry a large overload. 

The troubles with steam engines usually come on grad- 
ually, and the attendant is able to observe what is wrong 
before the engine is stopped. With the gasoline engine, 
if anything goes wrong the engine stops at once. All con- 
ditions must be right in the gasoline engine or it will 
not run. 

579. The future of the gasoline engine. — Gasoline en- 
gines will no doubt be used more and more as time goes 
on, as they are especially adapted to the farmer's needs. 
The gasoline engine is a power plant within itself. It 
can be manufactured in almost any sized unit, and a suit- 
able size can be produced for all manner of farm work 
from the light work of running grain separators to a 
motor large enough to run a threshing separator. If 
gasoline as a fuel becomes too expensive, there is a possi- 
bility of a substitution of other liquid fuels in this type of 
engine. 



r.AS, OIL AND ArXOIIOL ENGINES 435 

Engines may be designed to use a heavier kerosene oil, 
and also alcohol. By the addition of a gas producer, 
power may be obtained from coal by the use of a gas 
engine. The internal-combustion engine is the most ef- 
ficient of all engines ; that is, a larger per cent of the 
heat is converted into mechanical energy than by any 
other form of prime mover. The efficiency of a steam 
plant is seldom more than 12 per cent; that of a gasoline 
engine is not far from 20 per cent. Alcohol works about 
as well in the gasoline engine as gasoline. The only 
difficulty to be had is in starting, as alcohol does not 
carburet as easily as gasoline. As a rough estimate, four 
gallons of alcohol are equal to three gallons of gasoline. 

Alcohol is now manufactured in Germany at about i8 
cents a gallon. It is claimed that alcohol can be manu- 
factured as a by-product of sugar factories for as low 
as 10 cents a gallon. Thus we can feel sure that if gaso- 
line ever becomes so scarce and expensive as to prevent 
its use upon the farm, we may substitute for it a fuel 
which may be produced upon the farm itself. 

There is a marked advantage in the use of alcohol in 
that higher compression pressure may be used without 
pre-ignition. This tends to increase the efficiency of the 
engine. It is thought that the time will come when every 
farm will be provided with a power plant in which an 
engine of the internal-combustion type will be installed. 



CHAPTER XXI 

TRACTION ENGINES 

580. Traction engines. — The steam boiler and the 
steam engine have been considered separately. If the 
two should now be combined by means of a steam pipe 
and placed on skids or trucks they would be termed a 
portable steam engine. A gasoline engine placed on skids 
or trucks is known as a portable gasoline engine. Such 
engines are not self-propelling, but have to be moved by 
means of animals or some mechanical device. The trac- 
tion steam engine is the boiler, engine, and propelling 
device all in one. I'he traction gasoline engine is the en- 
gine and propelling device combined. In other words, 
the traction engine develops the power by which it moves 
itself over roads, fields, etc. The action of the traction 
engine is to convert energy into horizontal motion which 
has no direct path ; that is, the heat from the fuel is trans- 
ferred from the boiler to the water, then from the water 
to the steam pipe, and from the steam pipe to the engine, 
where it is changed from heat energy to mechanical 
energy. The mechanical energy is then transferred from 
the engine to the clutch, thence to the drive wheels, which 
propel the combined unit over its path. The gasoline 
traction engine is similar to the steam engine in part only 
and is considered by itself. 

ENGINE MOUNTING 

In nearly all types of traction engines the engine is 
mounted upon the boiler, and the boiler is mounted upon 
the truck. There are now being made some engines 



TRACTION liNCINliS 



437 



which are of the locomotive type, havinc^ the engine 
mounted beneath the boiler. These are known as under- 
mounted engines. 

581. Boiler mounting. — There are four general methods 
of mounting the boiler. The most common method is 
to attach the drive wheels to brackets at the side of the 
boiler and is known as side mounting. Another common 
method is to mount the drive wheels on an a>;le at the 




FIG. 316 — SIDE-MOUNTED PORTABLE ENGINE 

rear end of the boiler and is known as rear mounting. 
As a rule, the return tul:)ular boilers are mounted on an 
axle which passes beneath the boiler. This style of 
mounting is given no special name, but might be called 
under-mounted boilers. There is now on the market a 
type of mounting which might be known as frame mount- 
ing; that is, there is a frame to which the drive wheels are 
attached, and it also supports the boiler. 

582. Side mounting. — Fig. 316 shows the method of 
side mounting a portable engine. This is similar to a 
great many side-mounted traction engines. Fig. 317 



438 



FARM MOTORS 



shows a similar side-mounted traction engine. This is 
done by means of an axle for the drive wheel, which is 




FIG. 317 — SIDE-MOUNTED TRACTION ENGINE 

substantially fixed to a casting. This casting, which is 
known as the bracket, is then riveted to the side of the 
fire box. Fig. 318 shows this principle very well except- 
ing that the bracket is 
strengthened by means of 
a couple of rods which 
pass under the fire box 
and are correspondingly 
attached to the bracket on 
the other side. This is a 
very simple method, but 
has some disadvantages. 
The side bracket is at- 
tached only to the water 
leg of the boiler, while the 
total weight of the engine 

FIG. 318 — BRACKET FOR SIDE- i i M • ^i 

MOUNTED ENGINE ^nd boilcr IS throwH 




TRACTION RNCINKS 



439 



upon it. It is ob\'ioiis that this puts undue strain upon 
the boiler shell at a point where it is the weakest. The 
weight of the boiler and the engine is thrown upon these 
brackets and in such a manner that it has a tendency 
to throw the inside of the axle down and the outside up. 
This will tend to throw the tops of the drive wheels to- 
gether and the bottoms apart. The weight is also throw^n 
upon these axles so that that part of the hub of the fly- 
wheel next to the engine will wear faster than the -middle, 
and as a result the wheels will tend to become wobbly 
in action and wear the teeth of the transmission gearing 
unevenly. A truss bar similar to that of Fig. 318 re- 
moves a great deal of the strain from the water leg, and 




FIG. 319 



also tends to hold the axles in line with each other, and 
thus keep the drive wheels more nearly vertical. An- 
other method of side mounting an engine is shown in 



440 



FARM MOTORS 



Fig. 319. By inspection it will be noticed that this style 
of mounting is similar to that of Fig. 317, but in addition 
to this there is a heavy curved axle which passes from 
the bracket down beneath the fire box and up to the 
bracket on the opposite side. Although this style of 
mounting is considered superior to the one previously 
described, in order to prevent springing of the axle and 
the consequent wobbling of the wheels it will be neces- 
sary to make the axle too heavy for practice. Although 

the bad efifects of the strain 
on the boiler are practically 
all removed by passing the 
axle beneath the fire box, 
the effect of the wearing of 
the boxings in the hubs is 
still uncared for. This al- 
lows the wheels to travel 
out of a vertical plane and 
wear the gearing irregu- 
larly. Fig. 320 shows an 
end view of this style of 
mounting, with the addi- 
tion of springs. These 
springs are a benefit to a 
traction engine in that they take the jar off the parts as 
the engine travels over rough roads or pavements. 

583. Rear mounting. — Rear mounting, as a rule, is not 
as simply done as side mounting. However, it has some 
advantages over the other. Fig. 321 shows one type of 
rear mounting which has its merits. The brackets which 
support the boiler and the engines are attached to the 
corners of the water leg, thus removing the strain from a 
weak point to one which is stronger. By having the en- 
gine rear-mounted the axle upon which the drive wheels 




FIG. 320 — SIDE-MOUNTED ENGINE 
WITH SPRINGS AND TRUSS BAR 



TRACTION ENGINES 



441 



travel is allowed to revolve in the bearings instead of the 
wheels revolvino upon the axle. By having the axle re- 
volve in this manner the wear is all in a straight line and 
on the top of the boxing, hence there is no reason for the 
wheels to become wobbly and cut the transmission gear- 




FIG. 321 — REAR-MOUNTED ENGINE 

ing unevenly. By referring to Fig. 2^22 it will be seen 
that the use of springs becomes impossible on a rear- 
mounted engine as shown in Fig. 321. Assuming that 
there are springs in this type of mounting, and that the 



442 



FARM MOTORS 



springs are so adjusted that when a jar comes upon the 
engine the teeth will mesh as shown in Fig. 322, then if 
there were no jar upon the engine and the springs were 
carrying it in its normal position, the gears A and B 
would not mesh, or else they would mesh just enough so 
that the teeth would catch and strip. If a spring could 
be placed so the combination of gears A, B, and C would 



1 




FIG. 322 

rise and fall together in a circle whose radius is equal to 
the sum of the radii of the wheels C and D, it would be 
as efiective and the wheels C and B would mesh. Fig. 
323 shows the type of mounting which has this desired 
effect, but it has the additional complication of radius 
and cross links. As the springs respond to the jars of 
rough roads, these links keep the gear wheels the proper 
distance apart, so that they are always in proper mesh. 



TRACTION ENGINES 



443 




FIG. 323 — REAR-MOUNTED ENGINE WITH RADIUS AND CROSS LINKS 




FIG. 324 — UNDER- MOUNTED ENGINE 



444 



FARM MOTORS 



584. Under-mounted boilers. — Fig. 324 shows a type of 
mounting where the axle is straight and fastened directly 
beneath the boiler. By inspecting Fig. 325, this method 
of mounting will be more clearly understood. A is the 





'^'I^Txir^ 



FIG. 325 




FIG. 326— FRAME- MOUNTED ENGINE 



TRACTION ENGINES 



445 



main axle upon which the drive wheels operate. Althousi^h 
made of a square bar, it is round at the bearing B. and 
revolves in it. Althou.qh the brackets for this type of 
mounting are attached to the boiler, the boiler itself, 
being- round, is probaljly strong enough so that the ex- 
cessive strain will cause very little trouble. This type of 
mounting ver}^ seldom contains springs. 

585. Frame mounting. — To remove as much of the 
strain as possible from the boiler, some engines are now 
coming upon the market with a frame which supports 
engine, transmission gears, and boiler. Or else the frame 
supports the boiler and the boiler supports the engine. 




FIG. Ti2/ — FRAME-MOUNTED VERTICAL TRACTION ENGINE 

Fig. 326 shows the frame for this type of engine with the 
boiler and transmission gears removed. Fig. 327 shows 



446 



FARM MOTORS 



a vertical traction engine and boiler complete. For a cer- 
tain class of work there is a call for a style of frame 
mounting such as is seen in Figs. 328 and 329. In this 
style of mounting all the strain is thrown upon the frame, 
allowing the boilers to be freely suspended as shown. 




FIG. 328 — FRAME-MOUNTED ENGINE OF THE LOCOMOTIVE TYPE 




FIG. 329 — LOCOMOTIVE TYPE OF TRACTION ENGINE WITH STEAM- 
OPERATED PLOW 

586, Engine mounting. — Where the engine is not 
mounted upon the frame as shown in Figs. 326, 327, 328, 
and 329, it is mounted upon the boiler. This is not con- 



l! 



TRACTION ENGINES 



447 



sidered the best nietliod. However, it is commendable for 
its simplicity and possibly counterbalances the evil ef- 
fects of the extra strain upon the boiler. Fig. 330 illus- 




A "" B 

FIG. 330 — ILLUSTRATING METHOD OF MOUNTING ENGINE ON BOILER 




FIG. 331 

trates the method which most engine builders utilize in 
attaching- their engines to boilers. The brackets A, B, C 
are riveted directly to the boiler shell. 



448 FARM MOTORS 

Fig. 331 shows the main bearing A, which is a part of 
the frame, also the bearing B, which is commonly known 
as the pillow block bearing. These bearings are both 
riveted to the boiler. 

587. Clutch. — When the separator is being driven by 
the engine the traction part must not move. Conse- 
quently, there must be some method for throwing the 
power from the drive wheel which drives the pulley to 
the transmission gearing that runs the traction part of 
the engine. The device for transferring the power is a 
clutch generally located on the engine shaft. It acts 
upon the belt wheel of the engine. Fig. 332 shows a sim- 




ple. 332 — CLUTCH 

pie clutch in parts. A is the belt wheel upon which trav- 
els the belt that drives the separator. It is fixed to the 
engine shaft so that whenever the engine moves this 
wheel moves also. The clutch blocks and arms are seen 
at D, and the pinion is engaged with the transmission 
gearing at C. This part of the mechanism is not fixed to 
the shaft, and revolves with it only when the clutch is 



TRACTION ENGINES 



449 



locked. In other words, \Yhen the clutch locks, the blocks 
all are forced out against the rim of the belt wheel tight 
enough so they stick to it and the whole mechanism re- 
volves with the wheel. The clutch is a very important 
part of the traction engine and requires very careful ad- 
justment and care. Since the blocks DDD are continually 
wearing off, the arms EE have to be constantly adjusted. 
They should be so carefully adjusted that when thrown 
in, the clutch will lock and hold itself in position. They 
should also be adjusted so there will be no slip between 
the clutch blocks and the clutch shoe. Fig. 333 

shows another type of 
clutch, which has a metal 
clutch block instead of 
wood. 

588. Transmission gear- 
ing. — The steam engine for 
traction engine work gen- 
erally has a speed of 200 
to 225 revolutions a min- 
ute. If the drive wheels 
were connected directly to 
the engine shaft such a 
speed would drive the out- 
fit over the ground nearly 
as fast as a locomotive travels. This is something that 
could not be conceived of on country roads, hence the 
speed has to be reduced to one which is permissible. For 
this purpose a chain of gears such as is shown in Fig. 334 
is utilized. Not only are these gears used to reduce the 
speed of rotation from that of the drive wheel to that of 
the engine, but since the engine is generally located some 
distance from the traction wheel shaft, these gears con- 
duct the power from the engine shaft to the shaft of the 




FIC,. ^23 — CLUTCH WITH METAL 
BLOCKS 



450 



FARM MOTORS 



traction wheel. The intermediate gears are generally 
attached to the boiler by means of brackets as shown 
in Fig. 322. If the engine were ahvays to travel 
straight ahead or straight backward the matter of trans- 
mission gearing would be very simple, but since it has 
to turn and often on a very small circle one wheel is 
compelled to travel faster than the other; consequently 
they cannot be both attached rigidly to the same shaft. 




FIG. 334 — GEARS CONNECTING ENGINE WITH TRACTION WHEELS 



If one wheel were attached to the shaft and the other 
were allowed to go free then one wheel would do all 
of the traction work. This would not do, since the engine 
would have only half of the tractive pov/er and for road 
work it is necessary that every pound possible of trac- 
tive pull be developed. To arrange the drive wheels of 
a traction engine so that both will pull when the engine 
is traveling in a straight line and also so they will travel 



TRACTION ENGINES 



451 



r 



in a curve without slipping, a compensating gear is in- 
serted in the chain of transmission. 

589. Compensating gears. — Fig. 335 shows a simple, 
very effective compensating gear. The large pinion A 
carries the small pinions CCC. The shaft F is connected 
to the flywheel on the opposite side of the engine by 
means of a small pinion. The pinion G is connected to the 
other main gear. The power is transmitted from the en- 
gine shaft to the pinion A. As pinion A revolves in the di- 
rection of the arrow, pinions CCC will be driven, and they 

in turn will propel the drive 
wheels. But if the drive 
wheel attached to pinion G 
happens to travel faster than 
that attached to shaft F the 
^^^^. , pinion C will revolve and 

^9^^EB^^^£.^^SJliL ^^^^^ ^^^ pinion A will propel 
^^^^S»^BSi^rtF«»c the gearing. Often there are 

some very severe jerks on 
the transmission gearing of 
an engine and some com- 
panies are now inserting in 
their compensating gears a 
set of springs which take this jar off the gearing. 

590. Traction. — Any traction engine has power enough 
to propel itself over the road and through the fields pro- 
vided the drive wheels do not slip. Consequently the 
matter of the wheels adhering to the ground is an im- 
portant part. Where the road surface is firm there is no 
difficulty ; but in a soft field great trouble is experienced 
due to the fact that the lugs of the drive wheels tear up 
the earth and allow the drive wheels to move without 
moving the engine. It is a common belief that the driv^e 
wheel which has the sharpest lug is the one which will 




FIG- 335 — COMPENSATING GEARS 



452 



FARM MOTORS 



adhere to the ground the best. In nearly all cases this 
is not true, since the lug which is sharp is very apt to cut 
through the earth, while one which is dull or round and 
does not have such penetrating effect will pack the earth 
down and thus make more resistance for itself while 
passing through the earth. Nearly every engine builder 
has a style of lug of his own. Fig. 338 shows a new 
style of traction wheel which seems to be giving very 
good results. The more weight that can be put on to 
the drive wheels of an engine the better it will adhere 
to the ground, providing the surface is firm enough to 
support the load. This makes the matter of location of 

the main axles upon the 
boiler an important factor. 
When the boiler is rear- 
mounted it is obvious that 
more of the weight is 
thrown upon the front 
wheels, which act as a 
guide, than when the 
Pjg ^,g boiler is side-mounted. 

Hence one would be led to 
believe that the side-mounted traction engine will have 
better tractive power than the rear-mounted. It is also in- 
dicative of better tractive power when the pivot of the 
front axle is as far ahead as possible. For this reason 
some builders are now attaching a frame to the boiler 
and crowding the front trucks ahead. Fig. 336 is an illus- 
tration of this type of mounting. 

591. Width of tires. — Where traction engines such as 
are used for harvesting and threshing grain simultane- 
ously are used for plow work or in the field an excep- 
tionally wide tire is required. If an engine is to be used 
for this work exclusively the wheels are made with the 



i 




TRACTION ENGINES 453 

proper width of tires at the factory. But where an en- 
gine is to be used for job threshing a part of the time 
and for plowing a part of the time the wheels should be 
made so an extra width of tire can be attached to support 
the engine for plowing. 

592. Road rollers. — For road rolling purposes traction 
engines as a rule, especially the gearing and bearings, are 
made much heavier. The tires are wider, and the front 
truck instead of being made of two wheels is made into 
one broad wheel. 

HANDLING A TRACTION ENGINE 

593. Moving an engine. — ^^llen moving an engine it is 
best to carry more water than when doing stationary 
work. This is especially true in hilly fields or hilly 
roads. The gauge glass and water cocks should be care- 
fully watched. The steam pressure should be maintained 
near the blow'-off point. Upon approaching a hill judg- 
ment should be exercised in regard to the fire and amount 
of water and pressure. As much water should be car- 
ried as is permissible without priming. If possible there 
should be sufficient fire when starting up a hill to carry 
the engine to the top. Judgment should also be exercised 
in regard to the speed. Taking an engine up a hill too 
fast is apt to cause priming. Also there is danger of 
reducing the steam pressure so that a stop will have to 
be made to raise it. When the summit of the hill has 
been reached, the fire can be started up, more water put 
in the boiler, and the engine allowed to travel faster. 
As much and probably more care should be exercised 
in descending a hill than in ascending. If possible the 
engine should be taken from the top of the hill to the 
foot without a stop. If this is not possible turn the en- 
gine around so that it sits as near level as possible while 



454 FARM MOTORS 



the stop is being made. Every engineer knows the dan- 
ger of having the front end of a fire box boiler the lowest. 
If the engine is inclined to run too fast in going down 
a hill the reverse should be thrown. If then it still travels 
too fast, while the engine is still in the reverse, open the 
throttle and let in a little steam. 

594. Guiding an engine. — Traction engines are guided 
by means of the hand wheel, which operates through a 
worm gear. This in turn acts upon chains which are 
attached to the ends of the front axle. Turning the hand 
wheel to the right will turn the engine in that direction, 
while in turning the hand wheel to the left the engine will 
turn to the left. Do not turn the steering wheels too 
often or too far. Watch the front axle and act accord- 
ingly. It is much easier to steer an engine when moving 
than when standing. If possible always move the engine 
a trifle when steering. The steering chains should be 
moderately tight ; if they are too tight they will cause 
undue friction, while if they are too loose the engine 
cannot be guided steadily. 

595. Mud holes. — The best way to get out of a mud 
hole is not to get into it. An engineer should go out of 
his way a considerable distance rather than to take his 
engine into a mud hole. A\ hen an engine is once in a 
mud hole and the drive wheels commence to slip without 
propelling, the engine should be shut down at once. 
When the drive wheels are run in the mud without 
moving the engine they soon dig up a hole out of which 
it is very hard to raise the engine. When drive wheels 
commence to slip, straw, boards, rails, posts, or anything 
at hand should be put under them so they may get a 
grip. In getting out of a mud hole do not start the en- 
gine quickly, but ver}' slowly. If the wheels will stick at 
all they will gradualh^ move the engine by starting it 



1 



TRACTION EXGIN'ES 455 

slowly, while if starting it quickly the grip of the wheels 
gives away before momentum can be put into the engine. 
If stuck in a mud hole always uncouple the separator or 
Avhatever load the engine is hauling, move the engine 
out, then by means of a rope or chain pull the separator 
across. If the engine is stuck in a soft place like a plowed 
field often the hitching of a team in front will take 
it out. 

596. Bridges. — Before crossing a bridge or culvert the 
engineer should make inspection to see if it will carry the 
weight of his engine and the separator. If there be any 
doubt and it is impossible to move the engine around the 
bridge heavy planks should be placed across it to dis- 
tribute the load. Always move slowly while crossing a 
bridge. If the engine has once broken through it can 
sometimes be removed by winding a rope around the 
belt wheel several times, then setting the friction clutch 
and hitching a team upon the rope. As the rope gradu- 
ally unwinds, it will move the engine by means of the 
transmission gearing. 

597. Gutters. — In road work often one drive wheel of 
an engine will strike a soft place in the gutter. Owing 
to the principle of the compensating gear this wheel will 
then slip in the mud and revolve while the other wheel 
will remain stationary and the engine not move. In a 
case like this the compensating gear should be locked and 
both wheels be made to revolve together. 'I'he wheel 
which is on the solid ground will move the engine out 
of the hole. To lock the compensating gear there 
is generally some scheme, as in Fig. 335, whereby a pin 
can be inserted in the pinion A and lock the pinion D 
by means of the projection //. 

598. Reversing the engine on the road. — \\ hen it is de- 
sired to reverse a traction engine moving on the road 



456 FARM MOTORS 

the throttle valve should be closed, the engine reversed, 
then the throttle opened. Traction engines are usually 
made strong enough so they will stand the strain of 
being reversed without closing the throttle. This, how- 
ever, is hard on the bearings, and the engineer should 
always close the throttle before reversing the engine, 
especially if the engine is running at full speed. 

599. Setting an engine. — A new engineer will expe- 
rience some difficulty in setting an engine so it is prop- 
erly lined with the separator. On a still day the belt 
wheel of the engine should be in line with the separator. 
This is also true when the wind is blowing in line with 
the engine and the separator. But if the wind is at an 
angle allowance will have to be made for the amount 
which it will carry the belt to one side. Often the en- 
gine will have to be set a few feet out of line with the 
separator and toward the wind. If the engine has been 
set when there is no wind and enough wind comes up to 
throw the belt over, it is not necessary to .stop the en- 
gine and move, but a jack screw can be set against the 
end of the front axle and the engine worked over toward 
the wind. Also the front end of the separator should 
be crowded in a similar manner until the belt runs in 
the proper position on the pulley. The friction clutch 
should always be used in backing the engine into the belt. 

600. Gasoline traction engines. — Since the gasoline 
traction engine requires no boiler, the engine with its 
necessary accessories, such as water tanks, gasoline tanks 
and battery boxes, is mounted upon a frame. Conse- 
quently the mounting of a gasoline engine is more simple 
than that of a steam engine. However, it has a disad- 
vantage which the steam engine does not have ; that is, 
the engine itself cannot have its direction of rotation 
reversed without a great deal of trouble, consequently 



TRACTION ENc;iNES 457 

there has to be connected into the transmission gear a 
reversing gear. The simplest of the reversing gears for 
gasoline engines now on the market is a system of fric- 
tion pulleys, such that when the engine is in one posi- 
tion on the frame the traction wheels will move for- 
ward. When it is in another position another set of 
wheels is connected in and the traction wheels will move 
backward. It will be noticed from this that the engine, 
which generally weighs 2,000 or 3,000 pounds, has to be 
slid backward or forward on the mounting frame. 
Fig. 337 shows a type of engine which reverses as above 




FIG. 337— GASOLINE TRACTION ENGINE WITH FRICTION GEARING 



described. This engine is operated by means of a set 
of friction v/heels, instead of a set of gearing as steam 
traction engines are run. Fig. 338 illustrates an engine 
which utilizes pinions for its transmission gearing similar 
to a steam traction engine. 

Rating. — Gasoline traction engines are all rated upon 



458 



FARM MOTORS 



the horse power they will develop at the brake. Conse- 
quently when one speaks of a 15 H.P. gasoline engine he 
refers to an engine which will develop only about the 
same horse power which a commercially rated 7 H.P. 
steam engine will develop. For this reason when com- 
paring the powers of the two engines it is always well at 
least to double the size of the gasoline engine to do the 
work which a commercially rated steam traction engine 
has been doing. 



1 




FIG. 338 — TRACTION ENGINE WHICH REVERSES IN THE CLUTCH 

Regulation of speed. — A gasoline traction engine oper- 
ated by means of friction gearing, as illustrated in 
Fig. 337, can have any speed required of it at the expense 
of slippage between the gears. But a positively driven 
traction engine must have other methods of changing 
the speed. These methods generally amount to changing 



I 



TRACTION liNGlNES 459 

the point of ignition in the engine in order to reduce the 
power at low speed, or else shifting the power from one 
set of gears to another. Generally in an engine where the 
power is shifted there are only two speeds, a high and a 
low. 

On the road. — About the same caution should be exer- 
cised in handling a gasoline traction engine through soft 
and muddy places and over bridges as in handling a steam 
engine. But there is practically no caution to be taken 
in climbing hills other than that taken on level ground. 
Upon descending a hill a strong and efTective brake 
should always be at the control of the operator. 

Traction. — As a rule gasoline traction engines are much 
lighter than steam traction engines. Consequently their 
tractive power is correspondingly less. And for heavy 
traction work the size of the engine must be increased 
in order to add to the tractive power. 



1 



CHAPTER XXII 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 



6oi. Natural magnets. — The name magnet was given 
by the ancients to a brown-colored stone which had the 
property of attracting certain metals. Later the Chinese 
found that when free to move this stone always pointed 
in one direction, and they named it loadstone (meaning 
to lead). The commercial name for it is magnetite 
(Fe304). This mineral is found in such quantities in sev- 
eral localities that it is a valuable ore for producing iron. 



WSm'^^W*'' 




FIG. 339 — NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL MAGNETS ATTRACTING IRON FILINGS 

602, Artificial magnets. — The ancients learned by 
stroking pieces of steel with natural magnets that the 
steel would become magnetized. Magnets produced 
in this manner are known as artificial. They are now 
made by stroking bars of steel with another magnet or 
an electromagnet, which will be described later. 

603. Poles. — If a magnet is sprinkled with tacks or iron 
filings, it will be noticed that the filings attach them- 
selves to the ends of the magnet but not to the middle of 
it. The name poles has been given to these places where 
the filings adhere. A suspended magnet will swing so 
that one of its poles points toward the north. This pole 
is then known as the -f- or north-seeking pole, or simply 
the north pole (N), and the other end is known as the — 



ELFXTRICAL MACHINERY 



461 



or south pole (S). The mariners' and the engineers' 
compasses work upon the same principle. 

604. Magnetic lines of force, — Again, if a sheet of 
paper be placed over a magnet and some filings then 
dropped upon the paper, and if the paper is slightly 
jarred, the filings will assume the position shown in 

Fig. 340. From this it is 
gathered that the magnet 
has lines of force and that 
these lines are of the form 
indicated in Fig. 341. For 
convenience it is assumed 
FIG. 340 that the lines of force leave 

the magnet at the N pole and enter at the S pole. 

605. Laws of magnets. — If the north and the south 
poles of two magnets are determined and marked it will 
be noticed that when one of the magnets is suspended so 
it is free to move in any direction and the north pole of 
the other is brought close to the south pole of the sus- 
pended one, these two ends attract each other. If, on the 
other hand, the N ends be brought together it will be 





— ^HSh 



\ 



\ \ 



\ 



>-w- 



-5- 



FIG. 341 — DIRECTIONS OF LINES OF FORCE 

noticed that they repel. Hence the general law of mag- 
nets is deduced : Like poles repel and unlike poles attract. 
The force of this attraction is found to vary inversely 
as the square of the distance, i.e., increasing the distance 



462 



FARM MOTORS 



between the poles two times reduces the force acting 
between them 2X2^4 times. In other words, the 
force is one-fourth as strong. 

606. Magnetic materials. — Steel and iron are the only 
common substances which show magnetic properties to 
any appreciable degree. 

STATIC ELECTRICITY 

607. Static electricity. — If a hard rubber rod be rubbed 
with flannel and then brought close to a suspended pith 
ball the ball will jump toward the rod. By rubbing the 
rod has been electrified and the action of the charge 
is to attract the ball. This charge of electricity is not 
within the rod but is on the surface and is known as 
stationary or static electricity. Another example of this 
is rubbing a glass rod with silk. 

608. Laws of electrical attraction and repulsion. — If a 
rubber and a glass rod be excited and suspended as shown 



I 




Gloss 



FIG. 342 

in Fig. 342 and brought close together it will be noticed 
that they attract each other, but if two rubber rods be 
suspended in the same way and brought together, they 
will repel each other. Hence the following law is ad- 
vanced : Electrical charges of a like kind repel each other 
and those of an unlike kind attract. 

6og. Density of charge varies with form of surface. — 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 



463 



Since all of the little particles of a charged substance, 
because of their mutual repulsion, tend to get as far away 
from each other as possible, the density of a charge is 
very much greater on the ends of an oblong body than 
in the middle. If the ends be drawn to a point the charge 
will become so intense that the point cannot hold it all 
and some of it will be given off to the air. 

610. Lightning and lightning rod. — In 1752 Franklin 
with his famous kite and key learned that there is elec- 
tricity in the clouds. He also showed that lightning is 
only a huge electric spark and that by means qf points 
like lightning rods these mammoth sparks may be dissi- 
pated into the earth. As the cloud which is charged with 
electricity approaches it induces an opposite charge in the 
points and the charge is then quietly conducted away, 
while if the points are not there the electric charge will 

assume such a volume that 

when the cloud does give 

it up it will strike the 

building in such a great 

bolt that damage is done. 

From this it will be seen 

FIG. 343 that lightning rods do not 

protect the building by conducting the whole charge of the 

stroke away at once, but by diffusing and thus preventing 

the charge collecting in large quantities. 

611. Potential difference (P.D.). — If water is placed in 
a tank A, Fig. 343, it will run through the pipe C into 
tank B. We attribute the running of the water from 
tank A to tank B to the difference in pressure between 
the two tanks. In exactly the same way will a positive 
charge of electricity flow from one body to another. 
Thus, just as water tends to flow from higher pressure 
to lower, does electricity of a higher potential flow to a 





c 


e 


: 


z ^ 



464 



FARM MOTORS 



lower. Moreover, if the tank A is not continuously sup- 
plied with water the tank B will soon be filled to an equal 
level ; likewise if current is not supplied to the body 
having the greater potential, the potential will become 
the same in the two bodies. 

612. Volt or unit of potential difference. — To measure 
the amount of work required to transfer a charge from 
one body of a high potential to one of a low potential 
there must be a unit. This unit is called the volt in 
honor of the great physicist Volta. It is roughly equal 
to the P.D. between one of Volta's cells and the earth. 



CURRENT OR GALVANIC ELECTRICITY 
613. Current electricity. — Electricity is an invisible 
agent and is detected only by its effects or manifestations. 
Current electricity is generally detected by its magnetic 
effects. That is, near all currents of electricity there are 
indications of magnetism, while in stationary or static 
electricity there are none. 

614. Shape of magnetic 
field about a current. — If a 
wire carrying a heavy cur- 
rent of electricity be run 
through a cardboard and 
filings be sprinkled upon the 
board they will form them- 
selves into concentric rings 
about the wire (Fig. 344). 
A compass placed in this field 
and at several positions will 
show that the lines of force 
are all in one direction. Re- 
verse the current and the 

_-„ -., needle will also reverse. This 

FIG. 344 






ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 



465 



shows that there is a direct relation between the direction of 
the current in the wire and the direction of the magnetic 
hnes which encircle it. 

615. Right-hand rule. — Ampere devised a rule in which 
the right hand is used as a means to indicate this rela- 
tion in all cases. Let the right hand grasp the wire ( Fig. 345) 
so that the thumb points in the direction in which the cur- 
rent is flowing and the fingers will then point in the direc- 
tion of the magnetic lines of force. Ampere being the 
investigator who made quantitative measurements of cur- 
rent electricity, the unit of measurement was named am- 
pere in his honor. Owing to the peculiarity of electricity 

it cannot be measured in 
pints and gills as liquids 
but can be measured by the 
chemical effect it will pro- 
^^^- 345 . duce, i.e., one ampere will 

deposit in one second 0.0003286 gram of copper in a copper 

voltmeter. 

616. The ammeter is an instrument used for the 
measurmg of amperes. Commercial ammeters do not 





FIG. 346 — AMMETER FIG. 347— VOLTMETER 

measure them by means of chemical deposits, but by 
means of a needle enclosed in an electrical coil in such a 



466 FARM MOTORS 

manner that as the current varies the magnetic force of 
the coil will vary, and cause a deflection of the needle. 

617. Voltmeter. — To measure the electrical pressure or 
potential difference requires an instrument similar to the 
ammeter excepting that instead of having a few coils of 
wire it often has several thousand coils of very fine wire. 
Only a very small amount of current will pass through 
these numerous coils. 

Electromotive force. — The total electrical pressure 
which an electrical generator is able to exert is called its 
electromotive force, commonly abbreviated to E.M.F. 

618. Electrical power. — The unit of electrical power is 
a unit of electrical work performed in a unit of time and 
is called a watt. 

The product of volts into amperes gives watts, i.e., 
volts X amperes = watts. 

Example. — An incandescent lamp is fed by a current having a 
voltage of 220 and requires 0.3 ampere of current. The electrical 
power consumed is then 

V X A =: W, 
220 X 0.3 =. 66.0 watts. 

Kilowatt. — The watt is such a small quantity that it 
has become the custom to use a larger unit known as the 
kilowatt. 
„^ I kilowatt = 1,000 watts, 

or, 

I watt = 1/1,000 kilowatt. 

Horse pozuer. — By experiment it has been found that 
•7375 foot pound per second = i watt. 

Now, since 550 foot pounds a second is the equivalent 

of one mechanical horse power, an equivalent rate of 

electrical working would be: 

550 ^ , . , , 

z= 746 watts = one electrical horse power. 

•7375 

619. Resistance, — If two pipes of the same di'ameter 
but (lift'erent lengths lead from a tank of water, the water 



I 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 467 

will flow very nuicli faster from the short pipe than from 
the long one. l'"roni this we learn that the pressure de- 
creases as the water passes through the pipes and the 
longer the pipe the more it falls. The friction between 
the water and the inside of the pipe retards the flow 
and is known as resistance. Electricity flowing over a 
wire is an analogous case. The current meets with re- 
sistance in the wire and there is a fall in potential. 

Comparative resistance. — To measure comparative re- 
sistance, silver is the unit of comparison, it having the 
lowest resistance of any substance. 

Specific resistance of some metals : 
Silver, i.oo; 
Copper, 1.13; 
Aluminum, 2.00; 
Soft iron, 7.40; 
Hard steel, 21.00; 
Mercury, 62.70. 

Laivs of resistance. — As the lengths of wire increase the 
resistance increases and as the diameter increases the re- 
sistance decreases. Hence the following law is deduced : 
That the resistance of conductors of the same materials 
varies in direct proportion to length and inversely to the 
area of the cross-sections. 

The resistance of iron increases with rising tempera- 
ture, likewise with nearly all metals, while the resistance 
of carbon and liquids decreases as the temperature in- 
creases. 

Unit of resistance. — A conductor maintaining a P. D. of 
one volt between its terminals and carrying a current of 
one ampere is said to have a resistance of one ohm. The 
ohm is the unit of resistance and is named in honor of 
George Ohm, the great German physicist. 

Ohm's laiv. — The current existing in a circuit is always 



468 



FARM MOTORS 



^1 



directly proportional to the E.M.F. in the circuit and in- 
versely proportional to the resistance. 
Hence if C = current, 

E = E.M.F.. 

R = resistance, 



Likewise, 



— _, or 
R 



current 



_ E.M.F. 
Resistance 



Amperes =r 



Volts 



Ohms 

620. Rheostats. — The common method for controlling 
the current required for various electrical purposes is 
either to insert or to remove resistance. By Ohm's law 



1 



-=l 



(A) 



If E is kept constant and R is varied, C will also be 
varied but with an inverse ratio. Any instrument which' 
will change the resistance in a circuit without breaking 
it is known as a rheostat. A rheostat can be constructed 




FIG. 348— PRINCIPLE OF RHEOSTAT FIG. 349 — COMMERCIAL RHEOSTAT 

of various substances : coils of iron wire, iron plates or 
strips, carbon, columns of liquids, etc. Fig. 348 illus- 
trates a commercial rheostat. The current enters at A, 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 



469 



A ohms 4 ohms 4ohma 
FIG. 350 — SERIES CONNECTIONS 



passes through the resist- 
ance B, which can be in- 
creased or decreased as the 
metalHc arm C is moved 
from point to point, and out 
through the arm C and pivot D. The rheostat absorbs 
energy and throws it off as heat instead of doing useful 
work with it. 

621. Series connections. — When lines are connected up 
as in Fig. 350, so that tliC same current flows through 
each one of them in succession, they are said to be con- 
nected in series. In this case the total resistance is the 
sum of the several resistances. 

4-1-4+4 = 12. 

622. Parallel connection. — If instead of connecting 
these lines up as in Fig. 350 they be connected as 
in Fig. 351 they will be in parallel and the total resistance 
will be only one-third of the resistance of one of them. 
This is obvious, for in this connection there is three times 
as much cross-section of wire carrying the current as in 
the previous case, and by formula (A) the resistance 
varies inversely with the sectional area. 

623. Shunts. — One line connected in parallel w-ith an- 
other is said to be a shunt connection to the other. In 
Fig. 35 lA, 6" is shunted across the resistance R. If R has a 
greater resistance than S it will carry less of the current, 
since the currents carried are inversely proportional to 
the resistance. Hence if R has a resistance of 5 ohms 
and 5" a resistance of i ohm, R will carry one-fifth as 
much current as 6" or one-sixth of the total current. 





FIG. 351 — PARALLEL CONNECTIONS 



FIG. 35IA — SHUNT 



470 



FARM MOTORS 



624. Cells. — If a strip of copper be connected to one end 
of a strip of zinc and the free ends of the two metals 
be immersed in dilute sulphuric acid (Fig. 352) a cur- 
rent of electricity will manifest itself in the wire. If the 
circuit is broken and tlie plates carefully watched, 
bubbles will be seen to collect on the zinc plate and none 
on the copper. As soon, however, as the circuit is com- 
pleted again a current will be noticed, also a great 
number of bubbles will appear about the copper plate. 
These last bubbles are bubbles of hydrogen and always 
appear when a current is being produced. The bubbles 
which form about the zinc are also of hydrogen, but they 
are caused by the zinc being impure and by a current 
starting up between these particles of impurities and the 
particles of zinc. This action is detrimental to the cell 
and should be stopped by covering the zinc with mercury. 

By permitting the current 
of this cell to run for some 
time it will be noticed that 
the zinc is being gradually 
eaten away, and that the 
copper plate does not 
change. From this it is 
learned that when the cur- 
rent of a simple cell is 
formed the zinc is eaten 
away and hydrogen collects 
on the copper. The cur- 
rent passes out from the 
FIG. 352 — CELL copper plate and in on the 

zinc. In other words, the copper plate is the positive ter- 
minal and the zinc is the negative. 

625. Polarization. — After the current has run for some 
time in the cell as previously described the strength will 




KUXTRRAI. MACllINKRY 47I 

become very much weaker, hut if the copper plate be 
removed and wiped, then reinserted, the current will be 
as strong as ever. From this it is learned that the hydro- 
gen bubbles collect on the copper and form an insulator, 
so that the chemical action is retarded. This forming of 
hydrogen bubbles is known as polarization, and in a good 
cell there must be some means to check it. 

The various forms of cells now in use differ from the 
above only by using different electrodes and having some 
method for checking polarization.* 

626. Dry cells. — Dry cells differ from liquid cells only 
in that the exciting fiuid is formed into a jelly or held in 
suspension by some absorbent such as sawdust or pith. 

In the common commercial type the zinc element is 
in the form of a cylinder and holds the exciting fluid and 
carbon. The ends of the cylinder are generally sealed with 
wax. The following proportions by weight will make a 
very good cell : i part zinc oxide ; i part sal ammoniac ; 
3 parts plaster ; i part zinc chloride ; 2 parts water. 

627. Heating effect of an electric current. — Owing to 
the resistance to an electric current passing through a 
conductor, heat is developed. If the current is small and 
the cross-section of the conductor large the amount of 
heat developed will hardly be noticeable, but if the cur- 
rent is strong and the conductor small in cross-section, 
the latter will soon become hot, often red hot, and some- 
times melt down. It is due to this heating effect that 
many machines are burned out, and it is also due to this 
same effect that more machines are saved. 

628. Fuse. — If a piece of copper wire is connected in 
series with one of lead and a current sent through them 
the lead will melt down at a little over 600° F., but it 

*For discussion of commercial cells see any text book on physics 
or elementary electricity. 



472 FARM MOTORS 

will require a temperature of nearly 2,000° to melt the 
copper. 

Because lead melts at such a low temperature it is 
used as a fuse. A fuse consists of a leaden wire connected 
in series with the circuit it is to protect, and when the 
current becomes too excessive the lead melts out and 
thus opens the circuit. Fuse wires, as they are called, are 
always labeled with the number of amperes they are 
supposed to carry. 

629. Magnetic properties of coils. — Let a wire carry- 
ing a current be formed into a small single coil and bring 
a compass close to it. When the compass is on one side 
of the coil it will be noticed that the N pole is attracted 
and the S pole repelled. Change the compass to the 
other side and the reverse will be found true. Now re- 
verse the direction of the current and it will be found 
that the needle acts in just the opposite manner. From 
this it is learned that the electric coil is simply a flat 
disk magnet with a N and a S pole, the same as any other 
magnet. 

630. Electromagnet. — When instead of forming the 
wire which carries the current into a single loop the wire 
is formed into several loops in the shape of a helix, a com- 
pass brought into its field will produce the same actions 
of the needle as in the single loop, only they will be 
much more violent. Now, if a soft iron bar, commonly 
known as a core, be placed within the helix, a very strong 
magnet known as an electromagnet will be formed. The 
lines of force of such a magnet are identical with those 
of the bar magnet. Hence, if the electromagnet is con- 
structed so that the lines of force can remain in iron 
throughout their entire length, the magnet will be much 
stronger. For this reason electromagnets are made in 
the horseshoe form as shown by Fig. 353. 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 



473 



631. Electric bell. — The electric bell is a simple applica- 
tion of the electromagnet. The current enters at A 
(Fig. 354), passes through the horseshoe magnet B, over 
the closed circuit breaker C, and out at D. The instant 
the circuit is completed through the coils a magnet is 
formed, which attracts the armature E, and rings the 
gong F. But as soon as the armature is drawn down 




FIG. 353 — ELECTROMAGNET 



FIG. 354 — ELECTRIC BELL 

against the poles of the magnet the circuit is broken at C, 
hence the current stops flowing and the magnet becomes 
nil. As soon as the magnet has no strength the force of 
the spring G draws the armature back and makes contact 
at C again, and the operation is repeated. 

632. Electromagnetic induction. — In a previous para- 
graph it has been shown that there is a magnetic field sur- 
rounding all electric currents. If a wire be arranged so 
as to form a closed circuit and then moved across a mag- 
netic field a reverse action of that explained above will 
take place. In other words, if a closed circuit be moved 



474 



FARM MOTORS 



through a magnetic field a current will be set up. This 
is the most important part of electricity, for upon it ii> 
based the operation of nearly all forms of commercia* 
electrical machinery. 

633. Currents induced in a coil by a magnet. — A sensi- 
tive galvanometer is connected in a circuit with a wire 
(Fig. 355) in such a manner that the galvanometer is not 
afifected by the magnet and yet the wire can come into 
the magnetic field. If that part of the wire between A 
and B be very quickly moved down across the field the 
galvanometer needle will be deflected. When the needle 
comes to zero and the wire is moved across the field in 
the opposite direction the needle is again deflected, but 
the opposite way. If the wire be moved into the mag- 
netic field and held still the needle will come to zero and 
remain there until the wire is set in motion. Again, if 
the wire is moved back and forth across the magnetic 
field the needle will vibrate back and forth across zero, 
showing that there is a current but an alternating one. 

When the backward and 
forward motions of the wire 
have become fast enough the 
needle of the galvanometer 
will practically stand at zero, 
only giving enough vibration 
to show that there is an al- 
ternating current afTecting 
it. By trial the following re- 
sults will be obtained : 

I. When the magnet is 
moved and tiie wire held sta- 
tionary the same results are 
noted. 
PjQ ^cc 2. When the position of 



1 



4 




ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 475 

the poles of the magnet is reversed the current is also re- 
versed. 

3. When an electromagnet is used in place of the per- 
manent one the same results are noticed. 

4. The induced current is produced by the expenditure 
of muscular energy and does not weaken the magnet. 

5. \Mien the wire is moved so as to cut the magnetic 
lines of force at right angles the momentarily induced 
current is greatest. 

6. The direction of the lines of force is at right angles 
to the direction of the current in the wire. 

634. Factors upon which the value of induced E.M.F. 
depends. — If the wire in Fig. 355 be very quickly moved 
across the magnetic lines of force the galvanometer 
needle will deflect farther than when the wire is moved 
slowly. Also, if two magnets with their similar poles 
together are used instead of one and the wire is moved 
at the same velocity as previously the needle will have 
a greater deflection. Again, if a coil of wire be used in- 
stead "of a single one the deflection of the needle will be 
greater. Hence it is obvious that the induced E.AI.F. 
is dependent upon and proportional to the number of 
■magnetic lines cut, the speed or rate at which they are 
cut and the number of wires cutting them. 

635. Currents induced in rotating coils. — Instead of 
cutting the magnetic lines of force of a strong magnet 
with a single wire let them be cut with a coil of 400 or 
500 turns. Let the coil be small enough so it will rotate 
between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. With the 
coil at right angles to the plane of the poles rotate it 
180'' and note the direction of deflection of the galvanom- 
eter needle. Rotate the coil the other 180° and bring 
it to the position from which it started and again note 
the direction of the deflection of the galvanometer needle. 



476 



FARM MOTORS 



The needle shows that a current has been induced which 
has two directions of flow during each revolution of the 
coil. This induced current is produced in exactly the 
same manner in which currents are produced by 
dynamos. 

636. Dynamos are machines for converting mechanical 

into electrical energy. They 
cannot develop energy but 
simply change the form 
of the energy delivered to 
them. Since they cannot 
develop energy, the amount 
of current delivered by 
them is wholly dependent 
upon the amount of me- 
chanical energy supplied. 
In principle the dynamo 
consists of two parts : a 
magnetic field made up of 

electromagnets and a number of coils of wire wound upon 

an iron core forming an armature. 

637. Simple alternating-current dynamo. — Consider the 
single loop of wire ABCD (Fig. 356) as the armature 
and the poles N and S as the magnets of a dynamo. With 
the armature in the position it is shown there is no cur- 
rent developed. The armature is for the instant moving 
parallel to the magnetic lines of force and consequently 
is cutting none of them. As the armature moves from a 
position perpendicular to the lines of force to a position 
parallel to them, the number of lines it cuts increases 
until it reaches the perpendicular position, and from then 
on until it has traversed 180° the number of lines cut de- 
creases until none are cut. From this it is obvious that 
with the armature in the first and last positions no cur- 




FiG. 356 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 



477 



rent is produced and when the armature is cutting the 
greatest number of lines of force the current is at a 
maximum. When the armature is turned through the 
remaining i8o° of the revokition the same action takes 
place. As the side AD moves down the current flows in 
the direction indicated, but as the side BC moves down it 
is reversed. Hence for one half of the revolution the cur- 
rent flows in one direction and for the other half it flows 
in the opposite direction. One end of the coil is attached 
to the metal ring E, and the other end is attached to the 
ring F. Both rings are fixed to the shaft, so they rotate 
with it. 

Brushes C a.nd H a.re in continual contact with the rings, 
so the current is taken from them and carried over the 
circuit. 

Armature. — It might be assumed that the iron part of 
an armature of a dynamo is only to carry the numerous 
wires which are used for cutting the magnetic lines of 
force, but this is not the only use for the iron core. The 
iron carries the magnetic lines of force very much bet- 
ter than they travel through air, and for this reason the 




FIG. 357 



FIG. 358 — MAGNETO ARM.\TURE 



air space between the fields is as nearly filled with the 
armature as possible. Fig. 357 shows the path of the 
magnetic lines through a ring armature. 



478 



FARM MOTORS 




FIG. 359 — SYSTEM OF WIRING FOR 
MULTIPOLAR ALTERNATOR 



638. Magneto alternator. 

— Fig. 358 shows a magneto 
armature with the wires off. 
This is probably the most 
simple commercial electrical- 
current generator used. It 
is only applicable for such 
uses as cigar lighters, tele- 
phone calls and line testers. 
For large purposes it is too 
inefficient. 

639. Multipolar alternator. — The numberof alternations 
in a dynamo as just described is 4,000 a minute with a 
speed of 2,000 revolutions a minute. This speed is as 
high as advisable, but the number of alternations is only 
about half as high as is considered good practice. For 
this reason large commercial dynamos are built with 
several poles, as shown by Fig. 359, and the number 
of revolutions reduced. The dotted lines in Fig. 359 
represent the directions and paths of the lines of force. 
The full lines indicate the windings, and the arrowheads 
the direction of current. By carefully following out the 
direction of the induced current it will be seen that the 
coils passing beneath the north poles have a current set 
up in them which is opposite in direction to that set up 
in the coils passing under the south poles. By inspecting 
the windings it will be noted that the direction is reversed 
between each set of poles, hence the current set up 
through the system is the, sum of all the currents set up 
at each pole. As the coils of the armature pass across 
the points midway between the poles, the direction of 
current is alternated. The number of alternations to the 
minute is found by multiplying the number of poles by 
the number of revolutions to the minute. 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 



479 



640. Direct-current dynamo. — For a great many pur- 
poses it is desirable to have a direct current, that is, one 
which always flows in one direction the same as a cur- 
rent from a cell. To do this some device must be applied 
to the dynamo just at the point where the current leaves 
the armature and before it reaches the external circuit. 
This device as used in a direct-current dynamo is known 
as a commutator. 

Conumitators are practically split rings secured to, but 
insulated from, the shaft of the armature. They take the 
place of the accumulating rings of the alternator. Each 
part of the commutator is insulated from the other parts. 




FIG. 360 



FIG. 361 



Principle of the coiiiinittator. — Fig. 360 shows a simple 
commutator connected to a coil which represents an 
armature. A and B are the segments of the metal ring, 
each of which is connected to the armature. As the arma- 
ture rotates in the direction indicated by the arrow the 
current passes off through the side C, out over the ex- 
ternal circuit through the segment .4, and in through 
the segment B and side D. When the side D has passed 
into the i)osition of side C, the current goes out over the 
circuit in a similar manner. The brushes E and F must 



480 FARM MOTORS 

be set so they close contact with each side respec- 
tively and make contact with the other side at the instant 
the current in the armature changes direction. 

641. Ring armature, direct-current dynamo. — A ring 
armature may be made for a direct-current dynamo by 
winding on the iron ring a series of coils, the ending of 
each coil being connected to tlie beginning of the next. 
The junction of the two is connected to a section of the 
commutator. As the number of groups of coils is in- 
creased the number of sections of the commutator must 
also be increased. An eight-coil ring armature is shown 
in Fig. 361 ; the direction of current is indicated by the 
arrows. The induced current from both halves of the 
armature flows up toward the positive brush B, out over 
the external circuit, back in through the negative brush C 
and through each half of the armature to B again. As 
each coil passes from the field of the N pole and enters 
the field of the S pole, commutation takes place and the 
direction of current is reversed. The brushes are located 
at this point and the current from both sides is con- 
ducted ofif on the same wire. When the brushes pass 
from one of the commutator bars to another there is an 
instant when the armature sections are short-circuited ; 
but this is at the instant when these coils are moving 
parallel to the lines of force, hence there is no current 
passing through them. 

642. Drum armature, direct-current dynamo. — Instead 
of winding the armature coils upon an iron ring some- 
times they are wound upon a drum. Fig. 362 shows the 
principle of the drum-wound armature suitable for a 
bipolar field. Like the windings of the ring armature 
the coils are in series and both halves are parallel with 
the external circuit. 

643. Comparison of the drum and ring armature. — By 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 481 

reference to Fig. 357 of a ring- armature it will be noticed 
that the inside parts of each coil on the armature do not 
cut lines of force, hence these lines conduct only the cur- 
rent and may be known as so much dead wire. In the 
drum-wound armature both sides of the coil cut lines 




FIG. 362^DRUM ARM.A.TURE 

of force and the only dead wire is across each end. Al- 
though the drum-wound armature has less dead wire 
than the ring-wound, it is not as convenient to repair. 
For this reason high-voltage direct-current arc-lighting 
dynamos are generally constructed with ring armatures. 
A combination of the two, which is known as a drum- 
wound ring armature, is extensively used in practice. 

644. Self-exciting principle of dynamos. — In the earlier 
types of dynamos the field magnets were always sepa- 
rately excited by either a battery or a magneto. Later it 
was learned that the soft iron of the field magnet after 
once being excited retains some of the magnetism. Since 
then all direct-current dynamos are built on this principle. 
There is sufficient magnetism remaining in the fields so 
that when the armature is up to speed it cuts enough 



482 



FARM MOTORS 



lines of force to induce a small current into the circuit 
around the field coils. This current more highly excites 
the field magnets until the dynamo soon picks up or 
establishes its rated E.M.F. 

645. Shunt dynamo. — In the so-called shunt-wound 
dynamo a small portion of the current is led ofT from 
the brushes bb (Fig. 363), and through a great many 
turns of very fine wire which encircle the core of the 
magnet. In such a dynamo, as the load increases the 
E.M.F. slightly decreases, and as the load decreases the 




MAIN CIRCUIT 



FIG. 363 — SHUNT-WOUND DYNAMO FIG. 364 — SERIES-WOUND DYNAMO 



E.M.F. increases. Hence, if the current fluctuations are 
great and quite frecjuent it would keep an attendant oc- 
cupied to keep the field resistance regulated for the load. 
(See Fig. 368.) 

646. Series-wound dynamo. — In the so-called series- 
wound machines the whole of the current is carried through 
a few turns of very coarse wire which encircles the field mag- 
nets (Fig. 364). Since every change of current alters the 
field magnetizing current, consequently in the current in- 
duced in the armature the E.M.F. at the brushes will vary 
with every change of resistance in the external circuit. 

647. Compound-wound dynamo. — In the compound- 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 483 

wound machines there is both a series and a shunt coil 
surrounding- the cores of the field magnets. This style 
of machine is designed to give automatically a better 
regulation of voltage on constant-potential circuits than 
is possible on the shunt-wound machines, and yet pos- 
sesses the characteristics of both the series and shunt ma- 
chines. Like the shunt machine a part of the current ic 
shunted from the brushes and around the magnet cores, 
also the external circuit is thrown around these cores. 
These machines are designed especially for conditions in 
which the load is very variable, as street car work, in- 
candescent lighting and for commercial power purposes. 

648. Classification of dynamos. — Dynamos may be 
classified according to their mechanical arrangement as 
follows : 

1. Stationary field magnet with revolving armature. 

2. Stationary armature with revolving field magnet. 

3. Stationary armature and stationary field magnet with re- 
volving core. 

They may also be classified by mechanical designs as 
follows : 

1. Direct-current machines. 

2. Alternating-current machines. 

And by electrical arrangement as 

3. Shunt-wound. 

4. Series-wound. 

5. Compound-wound. 

649. Armatures. — The armature core introduced into 
the magnetic circuit to lielp lower the reluctance is also 
an electrical conductor, and when rotated in a magnetic 
field will have currents set up within itself. These cur- 
rents are independent of the external circuit, hence are 



484 



FARM MOTORS 




i 



FIG. 365 — BIPOLAR DIRECT-CURRENT DYNAMO 



a loss. They are known as eddy currents and the loss 
is termed eddy current loss. Fig. 366 shows a section 
of a solid armature and the direction of these currents. 
Not only do these currents create a loss themselves but 
they heat the armature windings and thus increase the 
armature resistance. If these large eddy currents can be 
broken up into smaller ones the loss will not be so great. 
To break up these eddies armatures are now generally 
built up of a large number of sheets of iron with insula- 
tion between the sheets. The insulation used for this 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 485 

purpose is generally a coat of rust or a sheet of tissue 
paper. 

650. Hysteresis. — Another source of loss in an arma- 
ture is due to the fact that every time the current alter- 
nates the polarity of the magnetism is reversed. If the 
armature is making 2,000 revolutions a minute and there 
are two alterations in each revolution there would be 
4,000 alterations of the magnetism. This causes heat in 
the armature which is not accounted for in the external 
circuit, hence is a loss. Not onl}^ is there loss by heat 
in the armature, but the heat acts on the coils and in- 
creases the resistance in them and creates another loss. 
The loss in an armature due to these alterations of mag- 
netism and the heat produced thereby is known as 
hysteresis loss. 

651. Insulation of an armature. — The insulation of an 
armature is probably the most essential part of a dynamo. 
After it is put on in the various places where it is needed 
it must be baked and all moisture evaporated out of it. 
After an arm.ature is thoroughly prepared for use it is 
generally tested for poor insulation. The potential dif- 
ference for the test is about eight times as much as the 
armature is expected to carry, if there is any place where 
the electricity breaks through the insulation it is detected 
by means of a sensitive galvanometer. 

652. Capacity of dynamos. 
— It would seem that the 
amount of current that a dy- 
namo could produce might be 
indefinite if enough power be 
supplied. This is true in a 
certain sense, but there is a 
limit and this will appear in 
fiG. 366 one of the following ways : 




486 FARM MOTORS 



653. By poor regulation of voltage. — An overload will 
cause an excessive drop of the E.M.F. at the machine 
This will decrease the potential difference at the brushes 
and cause a weak current over the line. 

By excessive heating. — The heat from an armature 
increases four times for each doubling of the cur- 
rent. At this rate the armature would soon become red 
hot. It would work at a little less than red heat, but even 
this much heat would break down the insulation. The 
armature should not become warmer than 212° F., and 
the general custom is not to run it at a higher tem- 
perature than 70° above the surrounding air. 

654. Commercial rating of dynamos. — Dynamos are 
rated according to the number of kilowatts they will carry" 
in the external circuit without excessive heating. For 
example, a person calls for a 60 K. W. iio-volt generator. 
This means that he desires a machine which will deliver 
60 K. W. to the external circuit and maintain a potential 
difl'erence of no volts across the brushes. Owing to 
losses in the machine such a machine may develop 
63 K. W. and still have only 60 K. W. available for use 
in the external circuit. 

655. Efficiency of dynamos. — The efficiency of a dyna- 
mo is the ratio of its electrical output to the mechanical 
energy exerted upon it. For a i K. W. machine it is only 
about 50 per cent, and in generation of several thousand 
kilowatts it is about 95 per cent. 

656. Sparking at the commutator. — Sparking at the 
commutator is the most serious trouble the attendant will 
have with a dynamo, provided he keeps all other parts 
clean, and the insulation does not break down or the 
machine become short-circuited. There are several 
causes for a dynamo to spark, some of which are : 

I, Brushes not set at neutral point. This can be remedied by 



'ill |l 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 487 

working the brushes back and forth until the proper position 
is located. 

2. Brushes not spaced according to commutator bars. The com- 

mutator bars should be carefully counted and the brushes 
accurately set between them. 

3. Brushes do not bear against commutator with sufficient 

pressure. 

4. Brushes do not bear on the commutator with a perfect surface. 

5. Collection of dirt and grease which prevents good contact of 

the brushes on the commutator. 

6. A high or low commutator bar which causes poor contact. 

7. Commutator not worn perfectly round, consequently poor con- 

tact with the brushes. 

657. Repairing a dynamo. — If the insulation breaks 
down, a wire burns out or the commutator becomes worn 
out of round, an expert should be called in, and generally 
the defective part will have to be sent to the factory for 
repairs. Sometimes a good machinist can put the arma- 
ture in a metal lathe and turn it down round. A good 
man with a file can work down a high bar, and holding 
a piece of sandpaper on the commutator while it is in 
motion will clean it of all oil and dirt. 

MOTORS. 

658. Comparison with a dynamo. — A dynamo is a ma- 
chine for converting mechanical energy into electrical. 
An electrical motor is just the reverse; it is a machine 
for converting electrical energy into mechanical. Any 
machine that can be used as a dynamo can when supplied 
with electrical power be used as a motor. Dynamos and 
motors are convertible machines ; thus the various dis- 
cussions will apply as well to the motor as to the dynamo. 

659. Principles of the motor. — It has been shown that 
when a coil of wire is placed in a magnetic field and ro- 
tated an electrical current is produced. If the oppo- 
site of this is done, i.e., if a current is passed through the 



488 



FARM MOTORS 



I 



coil, the coil will tend to rotate. This is the principle of 
the electric motor: instead of taking a current off of the 
armature, one is put into it and at the same time sent 
through the fields. The current passing through the 




FIG. 367 — MULTIPOLAR MOTOR 

fields induces magnetism in them ; the lines of force pro- 
duced by this magnetism draw on the armature and cause 
it to revolve. By stud3nng Fig. 356 it will be noticed 
that the coil will revolve until the plane of the coil 
is parallel to the lines of force, and then stop. This same 
condition would take place in the motor if it were not for 
the commutator. Just at the instant the coil is brought 
to the position to stop, the commvitator changes the di- 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 489 

rection of the current and the turning efifect is thrown to 
the other side and the armature moves on. 

Counter electromotive force of a motor. — The armature 
wires of a motor rotating in its own magnetic field cut 
the lines of force as if the motor were being driven as a 
dynamo, consequently there is an induced E.M.F. in 
them. The direction of this induced E.M.F, is op- 
posite to that of the applied pressure. Such an induced 
E.M.F. is known as counter electromotive force and is 
an important property of the motor. A motor without 
load will run with sufficient speed that its counter electro- 
motive force will very nearly equal the applied pressure. 
The counter E.M.F. will never be as great as the ap- 
plied force. There will always be a difiference between 
these, equal to the loss due to resistance in the motor 
armature. The power of a motor increases as the counter 
E.M.F. decreases until the counter E.M.F. is one-half of 
the applied E.M.F., then the power of the motor decreases. 
The maximum power of a motor is reached when the counter 
E.M.F, is one-half of the applied E.M.F. 

Losses of a motor. — The losses of a motor, like those 
of a dynamo, are due to resistance in the armature fric- 
tion, eddy currents and hysteresis. 

660, Operating motors. — The resistance in the arma- 
ture of a motor is so low that if a motor were directly con- 
nected to the supply mains, too great a current would 
flow through it before a counter E.M.F. could .be set up, 
consequently the machine would be practically short-cir- 
cuited and the windings damaged. For this reason a 
rheostat known as a starting rheostat is inserted into the 
armature circuit of a shunt motor. To start the motor, 
switch A (Fig. 368) is closed, and this throws the cur- 
rent into the fields and excites them; then the arm is 
moved over the starting box to point one, and when 



490 



FARM MOTORS 



^nnnr\ 



romnn 




STARTING 

RHEOSTAT 
OrNAMO MOTO 

FIG. 368— WIRING SYSTEM FOR DYNAMO AND MOTOR 

the motor has attained its speed for this point it is 
moved on up to point two, then three, and so on until 
the last point is reached and the motor is directly con- 
nected to the feed wire. To stop the motor, switch A 
should be opened, and if the arm B is not an automatic 
shifter, it should be thrown back to its original position 
ready for starting the next time. Most of these arms are 
now made so they work against a spring, and when the 
last point is reached an electromagnet attracts the arm 
sufficiently to hold it in position ; then when the circuit 
is broken the magnet loses its attraction for the arm, and 
the spring draws it back. 

661. The electric arc. — When a current of from 6 to 
10 amperes under a pressure of about 45 volts is passed 
through two rods of carbon with their ends first in con- 
tact, then gradually drawn apart to a distance of about 
1/8 inch, a brilliant arc of flame is established between 
them. This arc, known as the electric arc, is made of 
a vapor of carbon. As the current passes across the con- 
tact points the high resistance produces enough heat to 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 



491 



ES 




FIG. 369 COMMERCIAL SWITCHBOARD 



disintegrate the carbon and cause it practically to boil ; 
this boiling throws off a vapor which is a conductor of 
electricity and as a consequence conducts the current 
across the gap. The temperature of the arc at its hottest 
point is about 3,500° C, which is about twice the tem- 
perature required to melt platinum, the most refractory 
of metals. 

Arc lamps are rated according to the watts consumed. 
They generally range from 6 X 45 = 270 watts to 10 X 45 
= 450 watts. About 12 per cent of the energy supplied to 
an arc light really appears as light; the rest goes to 
produce the heat evolved. 



1 



492 



FARM MOTORS 



Since the carbons of the arc lights are constantly wast- 
ing away there must be some device to regulate the dis- 
tance they are from each other and to work automatically 
to keep them at this distance. An ingenious appliance 
of electromagnets and clutches accomplishes this action 
and is explained in any book upon electric lighting. 

662. Incandescent lamps. — It is on the principle of the 

heated wire that we get light from the in- 
candescent lamp. Referring to Fig. 370, 
connections are made with the lamp at A 
and B. At CC are bits of platinum wires 
attached to the carbonized filament D. E 
is the highly exhausted globe. If the car- 
bonized filament were in the air, the intense 
heat created within it due to the resistance 
of the current would immediately burn it 
up, but since it is in almost perfect vacuum, 
it will last from 600 to 800 hours. Even at 
the end of this period the filament does not 
always break, but it becomes so disinte- 
grated that the candle power is low and 
further use is not satisfactory. 

663. Commercial rating of incandescent lamps. — 
Before a lamp is put upon the market it is compared 
with a lamp of known brilliancy. While it is being com- 
pared with the standard lamp, measurements of its 
voltage and current are made. After this is done the 
lamp is labeled with the voltage it carries, its candle 
power and watts consumption. A 16 C.P. 60-watt iio- 
volt lamp will require 

W 




FIG. 370 — INCAN- 
DESCENT LAMP 






,55+ amperes. 



_ 160 
E "~ no 

Lamps are usually made for circuits of 50 to 60 volts. 
no to 115 volts and 220 volts with constant potential. 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 493 

A i6 C.P. lamp requiring 55 watts on a 50-volt circuit 
will take about one ampere; on a iio-volt circuit it will 
take 0.5 ampere ; on a 220-volt circuit about 0.25 ampere. 
A lamp should not be subjected to a voltage higher than 
its rating ; the filament is not made for it and will soon 
give out. 

The efficiency of a lamp is proportional to the ratio of 
the number of candles it will produce to the number of 
watts it absorbs. A high efficiency is 3 watts per candle 
power, and the average efficiency is 3.5 watts candle power. 
High-efficiency lamps are used where the pressure is very 
closely regulated or cost of power is high, and low- 
efficiency lamps are used where there is not such close 
regulation and power is less expensive. 

664. Potential distribution in lamp circuits. — Incandes- 
cent lamps are usually operated from low-voltage con- 
stant-potential circuits. Where lamps are supplied with 
current from a street car circuit, which generally has a 
potential of 500 volts, they are grouped in multiple series ; 
i.e., 5 loo-volt lamps or 10 50-volt lamps will be connected 
across the mains. In a series circuit the drop on the lead 
wires does not interfere with the regulation of the vol- 
tage at the terminals, but in a parallel circuit this drop is 
an important factor and requires that the lamps be dis- 
tributed and the size of wire proportioned so that each 
lamp receives about the same voltage. For example, con- 
sider 100 220-volt lamps to be connected at distances 
along a pair of mains which extend 500 feet from a gen- 
erator which has a potential dift"erence of 225 volts at the 
brushes. The lamps nearest the dynamo will receive a 
greater potential than their rated capacity and will often 
burn out, while those farthest from the d3mamo will not 
receive potential equal to their capacity, hence will burn 
dimly. In order to overcome this, centers of distribution 



494 



FARM MOTORS 



are laid out in wiring construction and groups of lamps 
are fed from these centers Fig. 371. Feed wires are run 
from the generators to these centers and a constant po- 
tential is kept in them by regulation at the generator. 
Sets of mains are run from these centers, and then sub- 
mains are led off from these mains to supply subcenters 
of distribution. To these subcenters 
lead wires to the lamps are connected. 
In this system of wiring it does not 
matter if there is a fall of potential of 
20 per cent, between lamps and genera- 
tors, for the fall is alike in all. For 
example, a voltmeter across the brushes 
of a generator shows 225 volts, one at 
the main center of distribution shows 
only 218 volts, one at the subcenters 
shows only 212 volts and one across the 
terminals of the lamp shows only 210 
volts. But since there has been the 
same number of divisions and subdivis- 
ions the P.D. of all of the lamps is the same. 

665. Calculations for incandescent wiring. — To find the size of 
wire for carrying a certain current, let 
C. M. := circular mil area of wire, 

K = 10.79 = resistance i mil foot of copper wire. 
L = length of circuit in feet, 
C = current in amperes, 
E = volts drop on the line. 
In the formula, 

CM -^ ^^ X L X C ^ 10.79 X L X C 
E ~ E 

After obtaining the circular mil area, this must be compared with 
a wire table to get the number of wire to use. 

Example. — Fifty 55-watt no-volt lamps are connected in parallel 
to a center of distribution located 100 feet from a dynamo which 
generates 112 P.D. By measurement the potential at the point of 
distribution is no volts. What size wire is required for the feeder? 




FIG. 371 — PARALLEL 
CIRCUIT WIRING 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 495 

To find amperes to be conducted. 

^ W 55 , 

C = ~=- = =0.5 per lamp. 

E no ^ 

0.5 X 50 = 25 amperes for all lamps. 

112—110 = 2 volts drop on line. 

„ . . KXLXC io.7qX(iooX 2)X 25 

= E = ■ 2 ~ 26,975. 

C. M. = circular mil area. 
K = 10.79. 

L = 100 X 2 r- 200 feet. 
C = 25. 
By comparison with the wire table (670) the next larger size than 
26.975 is B. & S. No. 5. 

Wiring calculations for a motor. — To find the size of wire to 
transmit any given horse power any distance when the voltage and 
efficiency are known. 

_ HP. X 746 X LX IP. 79 
E X e X ^M ■ 

E = voltage required by motor, 
e = drop on line. 
H. P. ^ horse power of motor. 
% M = efficiency of motor in decimals. 
Example. — What size of wire is required to conduct current to a 
220-volt 6 H.P. motor located 175 feet from the dynamo? The 
drop on the line is to be 6 volts and the efficiency of the motor 80 
per cent : 

r M -HP- X 74 6 X L X 10.79 

'-'^^■- ExeX^M 

6 X 74O X 175 X 2 X 10.79 
~ 220 X 6 X -So 

= 15,984 C. M. 
= No. 8 B. & S. 
To find the current required by a motor when the horse power, 
efficiency and voltage are known. 

H. P. X 746 
E X ^ M ■ 
Example. — What current is furnished to the motor in the previous 
problem? 

H. P. X 746- 



C = 



E X^M 
6X 746 



220 X .80' 
= 25.4 amperes. 



496 FARM MOTORS 

INDUCTION COILS AND TRANSFORMERS 

666. Self-induction. — Self-induction is defined as the 
cutting of a wire by the lines of force flowing through 
the wire. When a current begins to flow through a wire 
magnetic whirls spring outward from the wire and cut it. 
This cutting of the wire with only its own magnetic lines 
of force induces an E.M.F. for an instant. But the 
E.M.F. which it does induce has an opposite direction to 
the E.M.F. which causes the current to flow. Hence the 
E.M.F. will be retarded for an instant by its own induced 
E.M.F. and will not flow until this is overcome. When the 
current flowing through the wire is stopped the lines of 
force again cut the wire but in an opposite direction, 
hence this time they tend to retard the cessation of flow 
of the current. The effects of self-induction are 
rarely noticeable in a straight wire, but when the wire is 
wound into coils in the form of a helix the magnetic 
field of every turn cuts many adjacent turns and the 
E.M.F. is greatly increased, being proportional to the 
current, the number of turns and the magnetic lines 
through the coil. If an iron core is placed within the 
coil the effects of self-induction are very much greater. 
By snapping the wires from a battery after passing 
through such a coil as described above a brilliant spark 
will be produced. This is the simple coil (Fig. 372) used 
in make-and-break ignition on gasoline engines. 

667. Induction coil. — If two coils entirely separate 
from each other be wound around an iron core and con- 
nected up as in Fig. 373 every time the current is started 
in coil a there will be a deflection of the galvanometer 
needle in b. If the current is broken in a the needle b 
will again be deflected, but in an opposite direction. 
From this it is seen that the magnetic lines of force which 
surround the wire in coil a induce a current in the coil h. 



ELECTRICAL MACHINERY 



497 



This is the principle of the induction coil, a diagram of 
the connections being shown in Fig. 374. The circuit 
leading from the batteries to the inside of the coil is 
known as the primary and the circuit wound on the out- 




'"mfp] 



r^f^RPi-^ 



HiH 



FIG. 372 



FIG. 373 



side of this is known as the secondary. The primary in- 
duces the current in the secondary, and if the secondary 
circuit has more turns of wire than the primary it will 
have a correspondingly greater E.M.F., in other words, 
the difference in E.IM.F. of the two circuits varies directly 
with the difference in the number of turns in the wire 
of the two. Since the induced E.M.F. is set up only 
as the current is made or broken, an automatic device A 

is connected into the pri- 
mary, whose action is iden- 
tical with the circuit break- 
er of an electric bell. In 
induction coils this, how- 
ever, is generally known as 
a buzzer. 

The induction coil is 
used with jump-spark igni- 
tion, on gasoline engines. 
For this work the spark 
requires such a high 
E.M.F. that the primary 
consists of only a few turns of coarse wire, while the sec- 
ondary consists of several thousand turns of fine wire. 




FIG. 374 — I'RINCIPLE OF THE INDUC- 
TION CFII. 



498 



FARM MOTORS 



668. Transformers. — Where alternating currents are 
used for electric lighting, to make the cost of transmission 
a minimum a voltage of i,ioo to 2,200 or even higher is 
used ; this is far too high to be taken into houses and so a 
transformer is connected into the circuit. A transformer 
is identical with the induction coil with the automatic 
circuit breaker removed. A transformer, however, usually 
decreases the E.M.F. instead of increasing it. This is 
done by having the primary enter the coil on a large num- 
ber of turns and the secondary pass off on a few turns. 
Since the current is alternating in action, it takes the 
place of a circuit breaker. 

669. Copper wire table. 



Gauge, 
A. VV. G. 


Diameter, 
Inches 


Area, 
Circular 


Weight 
Pounds per 


Length, 
Feet 


Ohms 
Resistance 


B. & S. 


Mils 


1,000 Feet 


per Pound 


per 1000 Feet 





0.3249 


105,500 


319-5 


3-I3O 


. 09960 


I 


0.2893 


83,690 


253-3 


3-947 


0.1256 


2 


0.2576 


66,370 


200.9 


4-977 


0. 1584 


3 


0.2294 


52,630 


159-3 


6.276 


0.1997 


4 


. 2043 


41,740 


126.4 


7-914 


0.2518 


5 


O.1819 


33JOO 


100.2 


9.980 


0.3176 


6 


0.1620 


26,250 


79.46 


12.58 


. 4004 


7 


0.1443 


20,820 


63.02 


15.87 


0.5048 


8 


0.1285 


16,510 


49.98 


20.01 


0.6367 


9 


O.II44 


13,090 


39-63 


25-23 


0.8028 


10 


0. IOI9 


10,380 


31-43 


31-82 


I. 012 


II 


. 09074 


8,234 


24-93 


40. 12 


1.276 


12 


0.08081 


6,530 


19.77 


50.59 


I. 610 


13 


0.07196 


5,178 


15.68 


63-79 


2.029 


14 


. 06408 


4,107 


12.43 


80.44 


2.559 


15 


0.05707 


3,257 


9.858 


101.4 


3.227 


16 


0.05082 


2,583 


7.818 


127.9 


4.070 



CHAPTER XXIII 

THE FARM SHOP 

670. Necessity. — There is no farm so small but a farm 
shop would be of value. For small farms there should not 
be m.any tools, but there is seldom a year when a small 
investment in a bench with a vise and a few tools would 
not return to the user a good dividend. It is not alone 
the amount of money which can be saved by doing a 
large per cent of one's own repairing, but it is the time 
saved in emergencies. 

Often breakages occur with farm machinery which, if 
the tools are at hand, may be repaired in much less time 
than is required to take the broken parts to a repair shop 
where the job must wait its turn with others equally 
urgent. There are times when farm work is very press- 
ing and a delay of a few hours means a loss of many dol- 
lars in wasted crops. 

Not only is there a loss by not having a shop for urgent 
repairs, but there are rainy and disagreeable days, when 
men do not relish working outside, that can very profit- 
ably be put in working in the shop. 

671. Use. — The idea is prevalent that only skilled me- 
chanics can do work in a shop. Of course this is true in 
a great many instances where the work is difficult, but 
there are more times when the work is such that a man 
with only ordinary mechanical ability can do it. The 
farmer should not attempt to point plows, weld mowing 
machine pitmans and do such work until Jie has 
achieved skill. However, he can tighten horseshoes, re- 
pair castings, etc., as well as do carpentry work. 



=^oo 



FARM MOTORS 



672. Location. — The location of the shop depends 
greatly upon circumstances and taste. If the shop is 
equipped with only a work bench and the tools which go 
with it, it can be built in the barn, or a part of the ma- 
chine shed be used. In fact a suitable place can be ar- 
ranged almost anywhere. To locate a shop with a forge 
in the equipment is a little more trouble. It should be 
a separate building and far enough away from the other 
buildings so that in case it should catch fire the other 
buildings could be saved. Should the owner of a farm 

shop be fortunate enough to 



I 




Bencn 
H Tool Cose h 



FIG. 375 — ARRANGEMENT OF A 
SMALL SHOP 



possess a gasoline engine or 
some similar source of 
power, the engine can very 
handily be placed in a room 
adjoining the shop and a 
shaft run one way into the 
shop and another way into 
the granary where the 
sheller and grinder may be 
located. 

673. Construction. — That part of the shop floor about 
the forge and anvil should be of earth or concrete, and 
if concrete be used in this part it might as well be ex- 
tended over all the floor space. The material and design 
of the outside of the shop should conform to the style 
of the other buildings about the place. 

674. Size. — The size of the shop should conform to the 
size of the farm and a man's ability as a mechanic. A 
small farm does not require as well equipped a shop as a 
large one. A farm close to town does not require 
as large *a shop as one several miles in the country. A 
man who is inclined to handle tools more or less will 
make very much more use of a shop than a man who will 



TIIK FAUM SHOP 



501 



Forgo 




Tool Case. 



V\5Q 



Bench 



^- 




Outside Dirnensions 
1 6-0 X (6-0 



RaKes, forks ond other hand tools hang on Thi5 woU 



FIG. 376 — ARRANGEMENT OF A LARGE SHOP 

use it only when dire necessity requires, consequently the 
man who uses the shop frequently needs a larger one 
than the man who very seldom enters it. A shop with a 
floor space of 8 X 10 is large enough for a bench with a 
few hand tools and a small portable forge. 

If one desires to have his shop large enough so that 
a wagon can be nm in for repairs it should be about 
16 X 16 feet. It might seem that this would be a waste 
of space, but that part of the shop where the wagons 
stand for repairs can be used for a wagon shed all the 
rest of the time. 



502 FARM MOTORS 

675. Equipment. — The following is a list of tools sug- 
gested for a farm of 160 to 320 acres. The cost of the 
wood tools is from $15 to $20, according to grade, and the 
cost of the forge tools from $25 to $35. The anvil re- 
ferred to in this list is cast iron with steel face ; if a 
wrought-iron anvil with a steel face be substituted for .! 
it an addition of about 5 cents for each pound weight *' 
should be added. 



LIST 



Wood Tools 



I rip saw, 5-point. 

I panel saw, lo-point. 

I 12-inch compass saw. 

I steel square. 

I 8-inch sliding tee bevel. 

I set bits. 

I each %-, 3/8-- H-< and i-inch socket firiner chisels. 

I 20-inch fore plane. 

I 8-inch smooth plane. 

I rachet brace, lo-inch sweep. 

I marking gauge. 

I 8-inch screw driver. 

I ^-inch socket firmer gouge. 

I 2 X I X 8-inch oil stone. 

I 8-inch try square. 

I i/^ X 15-inch bench screw. 

I pocket level. 

I drawing knife. 

I expansive bit. 

14X6 lignum-vitse mallet. 

I pair 12-inch carpenter's pincers. 

Forge Tools 

I forge. 

I pair 20-inch straight-lipped blacksmith tongs. 

I 80-pound cast-iron anvil with steel face. 

I 1%-pound ball pein hammer. 

I bardie to fit anvil. 

I 12-pound steel sledge with handle. 

I 55-pound solid box vise. 

I Champion post drill. 

I set dies and taps. 



LITERATURE WHICH HAS BEEN CONSULTED IN THE 

PREPARATION OF "FARM MACHINERY AND 

FARM MOTORS" 

The Influence of Farm Machinery on Production and Labor. By 
N. W. Quaintance. 1904. Publication of the American Eco- 
nomic Association, Vol. V., No. 4. 

Theoretical Mechanics. By L. M. Hoskins. 1900. Stanford. 

Mechanics of Engineering. By I. P. Church. John Wiley & Sons, 
New York. 

General Physics. By C. S. Hastings and F. E. Beach. 1900. Ginn 
& Company, Boston. 

Text Book of the Mechanics of Materials. By Mansfield Merriman. 

1901. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 

The Materials of Construction. By J. B. Johnson. 1903. John 

Wiley & Sons, New York. 
Experimental Engineering. By R. C. Carpenter. 1902. John Wiley 

& Sons, New York. 
The Book of Farm Implements and Machines. By James Slight 

and R. Scott Burn. 1858. William Blackwood & Sons, Edm- 

burgh. 
Bulletin No. 103, Evolution of Reaping Machines. By M. F. Miller. 

1902. U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

Physics of Agriculture, Chapters XL, XVI., XX., XXII. and XXIII. 

By F. H. King. 1901. Madison. 
Farm Implements and Farm Machinery. By J. J. Thomas. 1869. 

Orange Judd Co., New York. 
Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, Vol. I., pp. 203-231, 387-398. 

1907. Macmillan Co., New York. 
Farm Engineering. By John Scott. 1885. Crosby Lockwood & Co., 

London. 
The Fertility of the Land. By I. P. Roberts. 1904. The Macmillan 

Co., New York. 
Kent's Mechanical Engineers' Pocket-Book. By William Kent. 

1906. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 
Architects' and Builders' Pocket-Book. By F. E. Kidder. 1905. 

John Wi ey & Sons, New York. 
Twelfth Census of the United States. 

Science of Threshing. By G. F. Conner. The Thresherman's Re- 
view, St. Joseph, Michigan. 
Bulletin No. 6, Trial of Sleds and Tillage Tools, and Bulletin 

No. 7. Draft of Mowing Machines. By J. W. Sanborn. Utah 

Experiment Station. 
Bulletin No. 39, Influence of Width of Tire on Draft of Wagons. 

By H. J. Waters. 1897. Bui etin No. 52, Influence of Height of 

Wheel on the Draft of Farm Wagons. By T. I. Mairs. 1901. 

Missouri Experiment Station. 
Bulletin No. 68, One Year's Work Done by a 16-Foot Geared Wind- 



504 FARM MOTORS 

mill, and Bulletin No. 82, Experiments in Grinding with Small 

Steel Feed Mills. By F. H. King. 1898 and 1900. Wisconsin 

Experiment Station. 
Mechanics of Pumping Machinery. By Julius Weisbach and Gustav 

Herrmann. 1897. Macmillan Co., New York. 
Science of Successful Threshing. By Dingee and MacGregor. 1907. 

J. I. Case Threshing Machine Co., Racine, Wis. 
The Animal as a Machine and Prime Mover. By R. H. Thurston. 

1894. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 
Haulage by Horses. By Thomas H. Brigg. 1893. Transactions of 

the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. XIV. 
The Windmill as a Prime Mover. By Alfred R. Wolff. 1900. John 

Wiley & Sons. 
Bulletin No. 59, The Homemade Windmills of Nebraska. By E. H. 

Barbour, Nebraska Experiment Station. 
Steam Boilers. By C. H. Peabody and E. F. Miller. 1902. John 

Wiley & Sons. 
Modern Steam Engineering. By Gardner D. Hiscox. 1907. The 

Norman W. Henley Publishing Co., New York. 
The Steam Boiler. By Stephen Roper, 1897. David McKay, Pub- 
lisher, Philadelphia. 
The Traction Engine Catechism. Compiled by the Thresherman's 

Review. 1906. St. Joseph, Mich. 
Instructions for Traction and Stationary Engineers. By William 

Boss. 1906. The Author, St. Anthony Park, Minn. 
The Traction Engine. By J. H. Maggard. 1902. David McKay, 

Publisher, Philadelphia. 
Rough and Tumble Engineering. By J. H. Maggard, Iowa City. 
Farm Engines and How to Run Them. By J. H. Stephenson. 1903. 

Frederick J. Drake & Co., Chicago. 
The Gas and Oil Engine. By Dugald Clerk. 1899. John Wiley 

& Sons, New York. 
The Gas Engine. By F. R. Hutton. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 
The Practical Gas and Gasoline Engineer. By E. W. Longanecker. 

1903. The Acme, Publisher, Chicago. 
Bulletin No. 93, Comparative Values of Alcohol and Gasoline for 

Light and Power. By J. B. Davidson and M. L. King. 1907. 

Iowa Experiment Station. 
Bulletin No. 191, Tests of Internal Combustion Engines on Al- 
cohol Fuel. By C. E. Lucke and S. M. Woodward. 1907. U. S. 

Department of Agriculture. 
Dynamo Electric Machinery. By Samuel She'don. 1902. D. Van 

Nostrand Co., New York. 
Lessons in Practical Electricity. By C. Walton Swoope. Fourth 

Edition. D. Van Nostrand Co., New York. 
First Course in Physics. By R. A. Millikan and H. G. Gale. Ginn 

& Co., New York. 
Elementary Lessons in Electricity and Magnetism. By Silvanus 

Thompson. The Macmillan Co., New York. 
Steam Engine Theory and Practice. By William Ripper. 1899. 

Longmans, Green & Co., New York. 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Absorption dynamometers 18 

Action of valves 430 

Adjusting the walking plow 75 

sulky plow 75 

Advantage, giving one horse the. 14 
of the gasoline engine as a 

farm motor 432 

Agricultural engineering — defini- 
tion 9 

Air cooled, the 420 

Air for combustion 347 

Alcohol 434-435 

Alfalfa harrow 85 

Alfalfa mills 237 

Alternator, magneto 478 

multipolar 478 

Ammeter 465 

Amperes 27 

Anchor posts 313 

Angle of advance 372 

Angularity of connecting rod. ... 38 J 

Animal as a motor, the 281 

Animals other than horse or mule 

used for power 286 

Anthracite coal 347 

Arc. electric 490 

Armature 476483 

insulation of 485 

Arrester, spark 339 

Artificial magnets 460 

Attaching indicator to engines. . . 383 
Attachments, threshing machine.. 214 

self feed and band cutter 214 

stackers 215 

weighers 216 

wind stackers or blowers 215 

Attraction and repulsion, laws of 

electrical 462 

Automatic cut-off governor 389 

Bag in a boiler 360 

Balanced valve 373 

Baling presses 187 

box presses 188 

development 187 

horse power presses 188 

power presses 189 

Banking the fire 355 

Bar share 56 

Barn tools 181 

Base 407 

Batteries 419 

connection 419 

Battle-ax mills 299 

Bean and pea threshers 218 

Bearings . . .40, 398 



PAGE 

Bearing surface at wing of share. 70 

Bell, electric 473 

Belting 28 

canvas 30 

care of leather 29 

■ dressing 29 

lacing of 30 

leather 29 

link 31 

Best conditions for work 293 

Bevel gears 37 

Binders 143 

draft of 153 

Bituminous or soft coals 348 

Blister 360 

Blow-off pipe 338 

Blower and exhaust nozzle 328 

Blue heat 342 

Boilers, bag in 360 

capacity 339 

classification 318 

cleaning 358 

compounds 359 

direct flue 329 

externally fired 319 

horse power 340 

internally fired 320 

laying up 360 

locomotive type 321 

open bottom type 324 

principle 317 

return flue 324 

round bottom type 324 

steam 317 

strength of 342 

vertical 318 

Boiler shell, strength of 344 

Boiling point 365 

Bolts, stay 343 

Bottom, plow 59 

types of 63 

Boxes, heating of 41 

enclosed wheel 65 

Bridges 455 

British thermal unit 26 

Brushes 477 

Buggies and carriages 252 

selection 252 

Burners, wood and cob 326 

straw 328 

Burr 46 

Cable transmission 34 

Calculations for incandescent wir- 
ing 494 

Canvas belting 30 



5o6 



INDEX 



PAGE 

Capacity 286 

boiler 339 

dynamos 485 

of the horse 292 

Carburetion 430 

Carburetors 414 

constant level 415 

float feed 416 

Care of gasoline engines 427 

Cassady, W. R 56 

Cast iron 44, 343 

Cells 470 

dry 471 

Center, dead 374 

Centrifugal pumps 269 

Changes, physical and mental.... 3 

Chilled iron 44 

plow 65 

Classification of dynamos 483 

of steam engines 364 

of windmills 303 

Cleaning the fire 355 

the boiler 358 

the flues 359 

Clover hullers 219 

Clutch 448 

Coal, bituminous or soft 348 

anthracite 347 

semi-anthracite 348 

Coefficient of friction 39 

Coils, magnetic properties of 472 

induction 496 

Columns, water 334 

Combustion 348 

air for 349 

heat of 349 

volume of air for 350 

Commercial rating of dynamos. .. 486 

incandescent lamps 492 

steam engines 394 

Commutators 479 

principle of 479 

Comparative resistance 467 

Comparison of the drum and ring 

armature 480 

motor with dynamo 487 

Compensating gears 451 

Compound, boiler 359 

engine 392 

wound dynamos 483 

Compression 428 

Connecting rod 410 

angularity of 381 

Connections, series 469 

parallel 469 

Constant level carburetors 415 

Construction 407 

Cooling of gasoline engines 420 

Copper wire table 498 

Corn crushers 238 

Corn drills. 132 

Corn harvesting machinery 155 

sled harvesters 157 

types of 158 

Corn machinery 221 

feed and ensilage cutters 221 



PACE 

Corn machinery, development 221 

buskers and shredders 224 

Corn shellers 227 

development 227 

types of modern 227 

Corn planters 120 

calibration of 131 

development 120 

development of check rower... 120 

draft of 131 

hand planters 121 

the modern planter 122 

Corrosion 357 

Cost of production 5 

Coulter 57 

Cracks 360 

Crank shaft 410 

Cultivators 91 

classification 91 

development 91 

features of, with suggestions in 

regard to selection 92 

listed corn 99 

one-horse 91 

seats 93 

hammock 93 

straddle 93 

single and double shovel 91 

wheels 96 

pivotal 97 

boxes 96 

Current electricity 464 

Currents induced in a coil by a 

magnet 474 

rotating coil 475 

Cylinder 408 

head 408 

Davenport, F. S 56 

Dead center 374 

locating 375 

Deere, John 55 

Density of charge varies with 

form of surface 462 

Development, muscular 285 

of the present-day windmill.... 298 

Die for cutting threads 16 

Differential pulley 16 

Direct flue boilers 329 

current dynamo 479 

ring armature 480 

drum armature 480 

comparison 480 

Direct-reading dynamometer 20 

Direction of trace 289 

Disk harrows 83 

cutaway 84 

orchard 85 

plow cut 87 

tongueless 87 

Disk plow 66 

Division of work 294 

Double-cylinder engine 391 

Double-eccentric reverse 378 

Double-riveted lap joint 346 

Double-ported valves 373 



INDEX 



507 



PAGE 

Draft of plows 73 

Draft, line of least 291 

Drawing tlie fire 356 

Drills no 

classification of 110 

construction 118 

disk 112 

draft of 118 

the hoe no 

the shoe 1 1 1 

Drum armature direct-current 

dynamos 480 

Dry cells 47 ' 

Dynamometers 18 

absorption 18 

direct-reading 20 

Giddings 2i 

self-recording 20 

traction 19 

transmission 19 

Dynamos 476 

armature 477 

brushes 477 

capacity of 485 

classification of 483 

commercial rating 486 

compound-wound 483 

direct-current 479 

efficiency of 486 

multipolar alternator 478 

repairing a 487 

self-exciting, principle of 481 

series 482 

shunt 482 

simple alternating-current 476 

Early forms 361 

Early history 298 

Eccentric 372 

Economic considerations of wind- 
mills 314 

Effect of increase of speed 294 

Effect of length of working day. 294 

P^ffectual tension on belt 28 

Efficiency of dynamos 486 

of a lamp 493 

of a machine 12 

thermal 26 

of a wind wheel 307 

Ejector, siphon or 330 

Electric bell 473 

Electric current, heating effect of 471 

Electrical energy 26 

power 466 

transmission 42 

Electricity 462 

current 464 

static 462 

Electromagnet 472 

Electromagnetic induction 472 

Electromotive force 4^6 

End-gate seeder 105 

Energy 28 1 

kinetic 282 

law of transformation of 282 

potential 282 

sources of 28 ( 



PAGE 

Engines, internal combustion 401 

gasoline traction 401 

mounting 446 

steam 361 

traction 43^ 

Erecting mills 3^3 

Eveners 14 

two-horse 13 

E,\haust 430 

nozzle and blower 338 

Expansion of steam 367 

work done during 368 

Externally fired boilers 319 

Factor of safety 49 

Factor upon which the value of 

induced E.M.I", depends... 475 

Farm machinery, value and care 

of 275 

Farm shop, construction 500 

equipment 575 

location 500 

necessity 499 

size 500 

use 499 

Feed and silage cutters 221 

development 221 

Feed mills 234 

development 234 

power mills 235 

alfalfa mills 237 

capacity of feed mills 237 

corn crushers 238 

sacking elevators 236 

the selection of a 236 

Feed pipe 353 

Feed pumps 452 

Feed water heaters 334 

forks 18 

hay stackers 179 

sweep rakes 178 

Fire, banking the 355 

drawing the 35^ 

Firing 354 

with soft coal 354 

Float-feed carburetors 416 

Flues, the 35' 

cleaning the 3 5'> 

Flywheels 410 

Foaming 35 > 

Force 10 

electromotive 4^'> 

magnetic lines of 4 o 

Force pumps 2^5 

double pipe or underground.... 2 -, 

Forks if"' 

Forms of motors 29 ? 

Four-cycle engines 4' ' 

strokes of . 40? 

Frame mounting 44 '> 

Friction mounting 38 

coefficient of 39 

rolling 39 

Frog 5; 

Fuels 347 

value of 348 

purley, M 56 



5o8 



INDEX 



I 



PAGE 

Fuse 471 

Fusible plug 335, 336, 337 

Future of the gasoline engine.... 434 

Gasoline engines, care 427 

construction 407 

cooling 420 

four-cycle 402 

future of 434 

indicator diagram 423 

losses in 424 

lubrication 427 

parts 403 

setting 431 

strokes of 403 

testing 426 

troubles 428 

action of valves 430 

carburetion 430 

compression 428 

ignition 429 

two-cycle 404 

types of 402 

wiring 419 

Gauge, steam 335, 336, 337, 352 

Gearing 37, 307 

transmission 449 

Gears, reversing 378 

compensating 451 

Generation of steam 365 

Giddings's dynamometer 23 

Glass, water 353 

Goldswait. E 56 

Governors 385 

automatic cut-off 389 

Corliss 391 

hit-or-miss type 411 

racing 388 

throttling 386, 41 1 

Grate surface, power by 341 

Gray iron 44 

Grip 288 

Guiding an engine 454 

Gutters. 455 

Hammer test 346 

Handholes 351 

Handling a boiler 351 

Hand methods change to modern 

metliods I 

Hand planters 121 

Hand seeder 104 

Handy wagons 251 

Harrows, classification 82 

curved knife tooth 78 

development 79 

disk 83 

orchard disk 85 

smoothing 78 

spading 84 

spring tooth 81 

Harrow cart 82 

Harvesting machinery 136 

combined harvester and thresher 154 

development 138, 139 

modern harvester or binder. . . . 143 

draft of binders 153 

Haying machinery , , 1 62 



Haying machinery, baling presses 187 

box presses 188 

development 187 

horse-power presses 188 

power presses 1 89 

barn tools 181 

development 181 

field stacking, machines for. ... 178 

forks 181 

hay stackers 179 

sweep rakes 178 

hay loader 176 

development 176 

endless apron 177 

fork loader 177 

the mower 162 

rakes 171 

hay tedders 1 74 

Heat 26 

of combustion 349 

latent 366 

of the liquid 366 

Heaters, feed water 334 

Heating effect of an electric cur- 
rent 471 

Heating of boxes 41 

Heating surface, power by 341 

Heel plate 70 

Height and length 289 

Hillside plow 65 

Hit-or-miss governors 411 

Hock, width of 291 

Hoe drill no 

Home-made windmills 299 

battle-ax windmills 299 

Holland mills 299 

Jumbos 299 

merry-go-rounds 299 

mock turbines 299 

reconstructed turbines 299 

Hooking up an engine 378 

Horse, the 287 

at work 291 

capacity of 292 

grip 288 

height 289 

length 289 

maximum power of 293 

resistance he can overcome. . . . 288 

weight 288 

Horse power 466 

brake 25 

definition of 11 

indicated 25, 425 

of belting 28 

of shafting 38 

of steam engines 394 

Horse power presses 188 

Howard, P. P 52 

Hot tube ignitor 417 

How the wind may be utilized. . . 315 

Huskers and shredders 224 

Hydraulic test 346 

Hysteresis 485 

Ignition 429 

Ignitors 417 



INDEX 



509 



\ 



PAGE 

Igniters, contact spark 417 

jump spark 418 

Incandescent lamps 492 

Inclined plane 15 

Increase in production 2 

Increase in wages 3 

Incrustation 357 

Indicated horse power 425 

Indicator, steam and gas engine.. 24 

cards 25 

Indicator diagram 382, 423 

from a tlirottling-governed en- 
gine 388 

reading an 384 

to read for pressures 385 

Induction coil 496 

Injector, the 332 

Insi<le lap 369 

Insulation of an armature 458 

Internal combustion engines 401 

early development 401 

later development 402 

Internally fired boilers 320 

1 ron , cast 44 

chilled 44 

gray 44 

malleable 44 

w'hite 44 

JefTerson, Thomas 53 

Jointer 64 

Joints, riveted 344 

Joule 26 

J umbos 299 

Jump-spark ignitors 417 

Kilowatt 466 

Labor of women 4 

Lam!)s, incandescent 492 

commercial rating of 492 

Land roller 87 

Landside 56 

Lane, John 55 

Lap of valve 369 

inside lap 369 

object of lap 370 

outside lap 369 

Lap joint, double-riveted 346 

single-riveted 344 

Latent heat 365, 366 

Law of electrical attraction and 

repulsion 462 

of magnets 461 

of mechanics 12 

Ohm's 467 

of resistance 466 

of transformation of energy... 28: 

Laying up a boiler 360 

Lead 370 

reasons for 370 

Leaks 396 

Length of belts 30 

Leveling the water column 353 

Lever 12 

Lift pumps 263 

Lightning and lightning rods.... 463 

1 .ine of least draft 290 

Link belting 33 



Link motion reverse 378 

Listers 132 

loose ground 133 

Locating dead center 375 

Locomotive type 321 

Loss from improper amount of air 350 
Losses in a steam engine cylinder 368 

in a gasoline engine 424 

of motors 4S7 

Low water 357 

Lubricant, choice of 40 

Lubrication 40, 399, 427 

Lubricators 399 

Machine, definition of ii 

Magnetic lines of force 460 

direction of 460 

Magnetic materials 461 

Magnetic properties of coils 472 

Magneto alternator 478 

Magnets, artificial 460 

laws of 461 

natural 460 

Malleable link belting 33 

iron 44 

Manholes 351 

Manure spreaders 191 

development 192 

drilling attachment 202 

sizes 202 

the modern 194 

Materials 43 

magnetic 461 

strength of 46 

transverse strength of 46 

used 342 

Maximum bending moment 46 

Maximum power of the horse.... 293 

Mean effective pressure 25 

Mechanical efficiency 25 

Mechanics, definition of 10 

law of 12 

Merry-go-rounds 301 

Mills, power 316 

Mock turbine 299 

Modern planter 122 

Modulus of rupture 47 

Moldboard 56 

Moore, Gilpin 56 

Motors 281 

the animal as a 284 

comparison with a dynamo 487 

counter electromotive force of. 489 

forms of 282 

losses of 489 

operating 489 

principle of 487 

wire calculations for 495 

Mounting 437 

boiler 437 

frame 445 

rear 440 

side ". . . . 437 

under 444 

engine 446 

Moving an engine 453 

bridges 455 



I 



=;io 



INDEX 



tAGE 

Moving an engine, guiding 454 

gutters 455 

mud hoiesj 454 

reversing 455 

Mowers 162 

knife grinder 170 

modern 1 64 

mower frame 165 

one-horse 165 

troubles with 169 

two-horse 165 

wheels i66 

windrowing attachment 170 

Mudholes 454 

Multipolar alternator 478 

Muscles, strength of 286 

Muscular development 284 

Natural magnets 460 

Nev/bold, Charles 54 

Newcomen's engine 361 

Newton, Robert S6 

Nut 16 

Object of lap 370 

Ohm 467 

Ohm's law 4^7 

Oi' 348 

Oil-cooling system 423 

On the road 456 

Open-bottom type, the 3^4 

Open-jacket cooling 423 

Operating motors 489 

Orchard disk harrow 85 

Outside lap 369 

Packing 397 

Parallel connections 469 

Parallelogram of forces 10 

Parlin, William 35 

Parts of a steam engine 361 

Physical and mental changes 3 

Pipe, blow-off 338 

Piston 409 

rings 409 

Pitch of screw 16 

Plane, inclined 15 

Planiineter, the 23 

Flanker 87 

Planter wheels 129 

Plow 52 

bottom 59 

chilled 65 

disk 66 

the development of 52 

draft of 12 

gang 58 

hillside 65 

the modern sulky 58 

the modern walking 56 

the Roman plow 52 

scouring of 7 ' 

set of sulky 7° 

set of walking 69 

steam 67 

the steel plow 54 

subsoil 66 

types of sulky plows 60 

Plow-cut disk harrow 87 



PAGE 

Plug, fusible 335.336, 337 

Polarization 470 

Poles 460 

Poor regulation of voltage 486 

Pop valve, safety or 335, 336, 337 

Population, percentage of, on the 

farms 4 

Ports, anchor 313 

Potential difference 463 

distribution of, in lamp circuits 493 

unit of 464 

Pounding 398 

Power, boiler horse 340 

definition of 11 

electrical 466 

by heating surface 341 

horse power by test 340 

mills 235, 317 

alfalfa mills 237 

capacity of feed mills * 237 

corn crushers 238 

presses 189 

sacking elevators 236 

the selection of a feed mill.. 236 

Present engine, the 361 

Pressure, mean effective 25 

Prime movers 281 

Priming 339. 356 

Principle of the commutator 479 

Product, quality of 6 

Production, cost of 5 

increase in 4 

Pulley, belt 32 

definition of 16 

differential 16 

rules for calculating speed 32 

Pumping machinery 256 

centrifugal pumps 269 

early methods of raising water. 256 

force pumps 265 

double-pipe or under force 

pumps 26s 

hydraulic information 258 

li ft pumps 263 

modern pumps 263 

power pumps 268 

pump cylinders 267 

pump principles 258 

reciprocating pumps 257 

rotary pumps 269 

Pumps, feed 330 

Quality of products 6 

Racing 388 

Rakes, development 171 

endless-apron reversible 173 

one-way 173 

self-dump 172 

side-delivery rakes 172 

steel dump or sulky 172 

Ransom, Robert 53 

Rating 457 

Reading an indicator diagram.... 384 

Rear mounting 440 

Reasons for lead 370 

Reciprocating pumps 257 

Reconstructed turbines 299 



I 



INDEX 



511 



Reducing motion 24 

Keenforccnicnts of plows 58 

Regulation, wind wheels 306 

of speed 458 

Repairing a dynamo 657 

Resistance 466 

comparative 467 

laws of 467 

overcome by horse 288 

unit of 467 

Return-flue boilers 324 

Reversing a simple slide-valve en- 
gine iTi 

Reversing the engine on the road 455 

Reversing gears 378 

double-eccentric 378 

link motion 378 

single-eccentric 380 

Rheostats 468 

Right-hand rule 465 

Ring-armature direct-current dy- 
namo 480 

Riveted joints 344 

Rivets 342 

Road rollers 453 

Rods, stay ; . . 343 

Rollers, land 87 

road 453 

Rope transmission 33 

cotton 34 

hemp 34 

manilla 34 

sheaves 34 

splice 35 

wire 34 

Rotary pumps 269 

Rotating coils, currents induced 

in 475 

Round-bottom types 324 

Running the engine 396 

Sacking elevators 236 

Safety or pop valve. 335, 336, 337, 352 

Sanborn, J. W 73 

Saturated steam 366 

Scouring of plows 71 

Screen, the 15 

Section modulus 48 

Seeders 102 

classification of 104 

combination " : 10 

end-gate seeder, the 105 

hand seeder, the 104 

wheelbarrow seeder, the 105 

Selection of a sulky plow 75 

Self-erciting principle of dynamos 181 

Self feeder and band cutter 214 

Self induction 196 

Self-recording dynamometer 20 

Semi-anthracite coal 348 

Separator or modern threshing 

machine 206 

Set of coulters 70 

sulky plows 70 

walking plows 69 

Setting double-eccentric valve, 

the 379 



PAGE 

Setting engine, an 456 

slide valve, the 376 

Shafting 38 

Shape of a magnetic field about a 

current 464 

Share bar 38 

hardening 72 

sharpening steel 71 

Shear 46 

Shears of a pulley 46 

Shin 56 

Shoe drill i 1 i 

for wire rope 34 

Shunts 469 

Shunt dynamos 482 

Side mounting 437 

Single-eccentric reverse gear 380 

Single-riveted lap joint 344 

Siplion or ejector 330 

Size of plows 58 

Sleds 254 

capacity 255 

selection of 254 

Slide valve 369 

setting the 376 

Slip share 56 

Small, James 52 

Smoke prevention 351 

Smoothing harrow- 78 

Soft coal, firing with 354 

Sources of energy 28 1 

Space, steam 340 

Spading liarrow 85 

Spark arrester 339 

Sparking at the commutator 486 

Speed, effect of increase of 294 

Splice-rope 35 

Spring-tooth harrow 81 

Stackers 215 

Starting the engine 395 

Static electricity 462 

Stay bolts 343 

Stay rods 343 

Steam, expansion of 367 

generation of 365 

saturated 366 

superheated 366 

total heat of 366 

volume and weight of 367 

Steam boilers 317 

classification of 318 

principle of 317 

Steam engine, classification of.... 364 

commercial rating of 394 

compound 392 

double-cylinder 391 

early forms 361 

hooking up 378 

horse power 394 

leaks 396 

losses in cylinder 368 

Newcomen's 361 

parts of 364 

present, the 361 

reversing 377 



512 



INDEX 



Steam engine, running 396 

starting the 395 

stopping 396 

Steam and gas engine indicators. . 24 

Steam gauge 335, 336, 337, 352 

Steam plow 68 

Steel 342 

cast 45 

link belting 33 

mild and Bessemer 45 

soft center 45 

tool 45 

towers 313 

Stopping the engine 396 

Straw 348 

burners 328 

Strength of boilers 342 

of the boiler shell 344 

of materials 46 

table of 49 

of muscles 286 

Subsoil plow 66 

Subsurface packer 90 

Suction 69 

Sulky plow 58 

Superheated steam 365 

Supply tank 330 

Sweep powers 297 

Sweep rakes 178 

Tackle 16 

Tank, supply 330 

Tap ^ 16 

Tension 46 

Test of boilers for strength 346 

hammer 347 

hydraulic 346 

Test, horse power by 340 

Testing . 426 

Tests of mills 309 

Thresher 1 54 

combined harvesters and thresh- 
ers 154 

Threshing machinery 203 

bean and pea threshers 218 

clover hullers 219 

development 203 

modern threshing machine or 

separator 206 

attachments, threshing machine. 214 

self feeder and band cutter. . 214 

stackers 215 

weighers 216 

wind stacker or blower 215 

Throttling governors 386, 411 

indicator diagram from 388 

principle of the 387 

Tillage, objects of 51 

Tillage machinery 51 

American development of 53 

Tires, width of 452 

Tongueless disk harrow 87 

Total heat of steam 366 

Towers 311 

height 315 

steel 313 

Trace, direction of 289 



PAGE 

Traction 451 

Traction dynamometer 19 

Traction engines 436 

gasoline 456 

on the road 459 

rating 457 

regulation of speed 458 

traction 459 

Transformers 498 

Transmission dynamometer 19 

Transmission, electrical 42 

gearing 449 

of power . . 28 

Tread power, the 295 

the work of a horse in a 296 

Triangles 36 

Troubles, gasoline engine 428 

Turbine windmills 303 

Tubular roller 89 

Two-cycle engine 404 

strokes of 404 

Types of gasohne engines 402 

Types of sulky plows 60 

Under mounted boilers 444 

Unit of potential difference, volt 

on 464 

of resistance 466 

of work II 

Use of the windmill, the 303 

Value of fuels 348 

Valve 411 

action of 430 

balanced 373 

double-ported 373 

lap of 369 

piston 374 

safety or pop 335, 336, 337, 352 

setting the double-eccentric... 379 

slide 369 

Vector quantity 10 

Vertical boilers 318 

Volts 27 

Volt or unit of potential difference 464 

Voltmeter 466 

\'olume of air for combustion. . . 350 

N'olume and weight of steam 367 

Wages, increase of 3 

Wagons 240 

buggies and sleds 239 

capacity 246 

development of 239 

draft of 246 

handy wagons 251 

material 240 

Water-cooled engines 420 

glass 353 

low 357 

Water columns 334 

leveling the 353 

Watts 27 

Webster's plow 53 

Weigher threshing machine 216 

Weiglit 288 

Wheelbarrow seeder 105 

White iron 44 

Width of hock 291 



INDEX 



513 



PAGE 

Width of tires 452 

Windmills 298 

classification 303 

development of present-day .... 298 

early history 298 

economic considerations of 3'4 

erecting 3 ' 3 

gearing 307 

home-made 299 

power 3 ' 6 

power of 308 

tests of 309 

turbine 303 

the use of the 303 

Wind stacker or blower 215 

Wind wheels 304 

efticiency 307 



PAGE 

Wind wheels, regulation 306 

Wire belt lacing 3' 

Wire table, copper 49° 

Wiring calculations for a motor. . 494 

Women, labor of 4 

Wood, Jethro 54 

Wood 43. 347 

and cob burners 326 

Wooden pumps 263 

Work, best conditions for 293 

definition of 'o 

division of 294 

the horse at 291 

unit of " 

Working day, length of 5 

effect of length of 294 



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